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A protected area network should ensure the maintenance of biodiversity, but climate is changing rapidly, thereby creating further demand for the protected area network to be efficient in preserving biota. Due to climate change species ranges are expected to move polewards, which poses challenges to the protected area network.

Population changes of different bird species groups according to their habitat preferences in boreal protected areas in Finland were studied on the basis of large-scale bird censuses carried out in 1981 and in 2000. Mean temperatures rose clearly between the two time slices in Finland, for example, mean April-June temperature by 0.7 °C.

The study "Preserving species populations in the boreal zone in a changing climate: contrasting trends of bird species groups in a protected area network" by Raimo Virkkala from the Finnish Environment Institute and Ari Rajasärkkä from Metsähallitus was published in the open access journal Nature Conservation. Bird censuses were compiled and organized by Metsähallitus, which governs the stated-owned protected areas in Finland. Tens of competent ornithologists carried out the censuses, which included altogether over 11,600 km of line transects.

According to the study, population densities of common forest habitat generalists remained the same between the two periods, while densities of species of conservation concern showed contrasting trends: species preferring old-growth or mature forests increased, but those living on mires and wetlands, and species of Arctic mountains decreased.

"These trends are most probably connected with climate change, but successional changes in protected areas and regional habitat alteration should also be taken into account," says Dr Virkkala, the leading author of the study. Of species preferring old-growth or mature forests, a larger proportion are southern than among species of mires and wetlands, or of Arctic mountains, most or all of which, respectively, had a northerly distribution.

In general, northern species have decreased and southern species increased. It is suggested that climate change effects on species in natural boreal and Arctic habitats most probably are habitat-specific with large differences in response times and susceptibility. Open mires and mountain heaths change more rapidly in consequence of climate warming than old-growth forests, for which reason populations on mires and mountain heaths may also be more affected by climate change.

Original source
Virkkala R, Rajasärkkä A (2012) Preserving species populations in the boreal zone in a changing climate: contrasting trends of bird species groups in a protected area network. Nature Conservation 3: 1. doi: 10.3897/natureconservation.3.3635

The study of chromosome changes arisen during species evolution is a current and intriguing topic that evolutionary biology proposes. However, in several groups (for example, molluscs), and chitons in particular, chromosome studies are scarce, with a few species investigated and analyses performed mostly with simple methods.

Only 2,5% of about 900 living species of chitons have been so far karyologically investigated, all of them in the same order (Chitonida). The authors note that the species of suborder Chitonina all have a karyotype of 2n=24 chromosomes, all biarmed, that is metacentric or submetacentric. The species studied by the authors, formerly included in Chitonida, also possesses 2n=24 elements, but many are uniarmed and, therefore, resembling to the chromosome complement of species of the suborder Acanthochitonina. This provides support to recent attribution of the studied sea cradle to the latter suborder.

Furthermore, the comparison among the karyotypes of the suborder Acanthochitonina allows the authors to propose that in this group of chromosome changes mainly occurred by fusion among uniarmed elements. This kind of change is that mainly involved in chromosome animal evolution. The study was published in the open access journal Comparative Cytogenetics.

Original source
Petraccioli A, Maio N, Odierna G (2012) Chromosomes of Lepidochitona caprearum (Scacchi, 1836) (Polyplacophora, Acanthochitonina, Tonicellidae) provide insights into Acanthochitonina karyological evolution. Comparative Cytogenetics 6(4): 397. doi: 10.3897/CompCytogen.v6i4.3722

Additional information
Odierma G, Aprea G, Barucca M. Biscotti M, Canapa A, Capriglione T, Olmo E (2008) Karyology of the Antarctic chiton Nuttallochiton mirandus (Thiele, 1906) (Mollusca: Polyplacophora) with some considerations on chromosome evolution in chitons. Chromosome Research 16: 899. doi: 10.1007/s10577-008-1247-1

A ‘regular hexagonal pattern’ was found in a plant-parasitic nematode worm

A new plant-parasitic nematode worm (Meloidoderita salina) was found in a tidal salt marsh at Mont Saint Michel Bay (MSMB) in France, where its abbey is a world-famous historical heritage. The species name ‘salina’ refers to salty soil and is derived from the Latin word ‘sal’ or ‘salis’ meaning ‘salt’. The study was published in the peer-reviewed, open source scientific journal ZooKeys.

The female nematode worm of Meloidoderita salina deposits its eggs in two different structures. One of them is called egg mass which is an external gelatinous matrix, the other one is a cystoid, which is a swollen uterus containing some eggs. Cystoid are harder and stronger than gelatinous matrix. On the surface of the cystoids of Meloidoderita salina, nematologists observed a specific and unique hexagonal beaded pattern.

"This discovery is probably the first observation of a real hexagonal pattern in the group of nematode worms so far, and further research is needed to find out its unknown origin", said Prof. Dr. Gerrit Karssen, one of the senior members of the team.

A tidal salt marsh, a transition zone between land and water, is a highly divers ecosystem. In MSMB, where this new nematode species was found, a large part of its area are tidal salt marshes in which a high number of ecological studies were done, although nematode worms have been mostly neglected.

"Meloidoderita salina is the first plant-parasitic nematode worm described from Mont Saint Michel Bay", said leading author Samad Ashrafi. This new roundworm parasitizes Sea purslane which is a halophytic plant (is found in salt waters). As a vegetable, the leaves of the plant have a salty, spinach-like taste and are edible raw or cooked and are also served in restaurants.

Based on the distribution map of Sea purslane in Europe, the team expects to find this new plant-parasitic nematode worm in "other western European countries such as Belgium, The Netherlands, Germany and the UK".

The nematologists who described this nematode worm predict it is likely to find Meloidoderita salina on other halophytic plants, grown in similar salt marsh areas.

Original Source
Ashrafi S, Mugniéry D, van Heese EYJ, van Aelst AC, Helder J, Karssen G (2012) Description of Meloidoderita salina sp. n. (Nematoda, Sphaeronematidae) from a micro-tidal salt marsh at Mont-Saint-Michel Bay in France. ZooKeys 249: 1–26. doi: 10.3897/zookeys.249.4138

In order to be effective, a Conservation Unit must have available a list of the species that live within it. They also should have detailed information about the distribution of species among the available habitats. It would be difficult to correctly plan the conservation actions and/or monitoring programs without some minimal knowledge about the species (who are the object of those measures). "This is why our study is so important to the park", said Dr. Miranda from Universidade Federal do Maranhão (CCAA/UFMA), leading author of the article, published in the open access journal ZooKeys.

In Lençóis Maranhenses National Park 42 species of reptiles were found. Approximately 80% of them live only in restinga habitats, which comprise about 20% of the area currently protected by the park. Restingas have been strongly disturbed by the clandestine openings of paths created to transport tourists to the dunes in the park, using off-road vehicles. This problem is more severe during the rainy season when paths become muddy quickly, and new ones are continuously opening. This could be extremely harmful to those habitats because their poor soil might severely limit natural recomposition.

"We recorded endangered species in Lençóis Maranhenses; particularly sea turtles located in the beach habitats. No one has any idea about the animal activity there! Are they spawning? It’s very likely, but we don’t have any data! It would be very important to study and monitor those species in the 70 km of beaches of the Lençóis Maranhenses National Park" adds Dr. Miranda.

Another turtle species, which deserves attention in Lençóis Maranhenses, is the Brazilian Slider Turtle, which has a limited geographic distribution in the coast of Maranhão, northeastern Brazil. This turtle is used as a source of food by the extremely poor inhabitants of Lençóis Maranhenses and surrounding areas.

"We believe that it would be helpful to promote awareness campaigns to help the conservation of that species, but it is equally important to provide alternatives to the people that live there. These inhabitants, for example, could be placed into the tourism business by providing training courses. They could work as tourist guides, waiters, or cooks. This would not only improve their economic capacity, but also free them of the need to use the Brazilian Slider Turtle as a food item. The efforts for conservation will only be successful with a joint effort of scientists, policymakers and society. We have to talk to one another and look for solutions together", concluded Dr. Miranda.

Original source
Miranda JP, Costa JCL, Rocha CFD (2012) Reptiles from Lençóis Maranhenses National Park, Maranhão, northeastern Brazil. ZooKeys 246: 51. doi: 10.3897/zookeys.246.2593

As a result of field work by associate professor James Davis Reimer and two graduate students from the University of the Ryukyus in Okinawa, Japan has found two new species of encrusting anemones, or colonial zoanthids, in unexpected locations. The species belong to the genus Neozoanthus, which was previously known only from a single species in the Indian Ocean. Surprisingly, the new species were found in the Pacific Ocean, in southern Japan and on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. The study was published in the open access journal ZooKeys.

The only previous species of Neozoanthus was described in 1972 from Madagascar, and subsequently it was not seen for almost 40 years, until recent research had ascertained that new Pacific specimens likely belonged to Neozoanthus (Reimer et al. 2011, in the journal Marine Biology). The new study formally describes these new specimens as two species.

The members of this genus are small, with individual polyps no more than 6 mm in diameter, and have red, gray, blue or purple oral discs; all inhabit coral reef ecosystems in areas with strong currents and some siltation. Both new species and the species from Madagascar contain symbiotic, photosynthetic, single-celled algae that can provide them with energy from the sun.

"We were very surprised in 2008 to discover Neozoanthus in the Pacific, in Japan," said Reimer, "and initially thought that perhaps these were very rare." However, further research in southern Japan by graduate students Yuka Irei and Takuma Fujii, co-authors on the new paper, revealed that the Japanese species was locally common. A further surprise came during the Census of Marine Life’s Census of Coral Reef Ecosystems (CReefs) surveys on the Great Barrier Reef in 2009 and 2010, when similar encrusting anemones were found thousands of kilometers away from both Madagascar and Japan.

"These findings can be explained by the fact that there are very few zoanthid researchers in the world. These species are not particularly hard to find, but there was no one looking for them," Reimer added. "This research demonstrates how little we know about marine biodiversity, even in regions relatively well researched."

Original source
Reimer JD, Irei Y, Fujii T (2012) Two new species of Neozoanthus (Cnidaria, Hexacorallia, Zoantharia) from the Pacific. ZooKeys 246: 69. doi: 10.3897/zookeys.246.3886

Field and laboratory work by a group of zoologists led by Omar Torres-Carvajal from Museo de Zoología QCAZ, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador, has resulted in the discovery of a new species of blunt-headed vine snake from the Chocoan forests in northwestern Ecuador. This region is part of the 274,597 km2 Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena hotspot that lies west of the Andes. The study was published in the open access journal ZooKeys.

Blunt-headed vine snakes live in an area comprising Mexico and Argentina, and are different from all other New World snakes in having a very thin body, disproportionately slender neck, big eyes, and a blunt head. They live in trees and hunt frogs and lizards at night. The new species described by Torres-Carvajal and his collaborators was named Imantodes chocoensis and increases the number of species in this group of snakes to seven.

Snakes collected as far back as 1994 and deposited in several Ecuadorian and American natural history museums were also examined. The authors were soon surprised with an interesting discovery. Some individuals from the Ecuadorian Chocó lacked a big scale on their face that is present in all other blunt-headed vine snakes from the New World. Other features, as well as DNA evidence, indicate that these Chocoan snakes actually belong to a new species. DNA data also suggest that its closest relative is a species that inhabits the Amazon on the other side of the Andes.

‘One possible explanation for the disjunct distribution between the new species and its closest relative is that the uplift of the Andes fragmented an ancestral population into two, each of which evolved into a different species, one in the Chocó region and the other in the Amazon’ said Dr Torres-Carvajal.

Original source
Torres-Carvajal O, Yánez-Muñoz MH, Quirola D, Smith EN, Almendáriz A (2012) A new species of blunt-headed vine snake (Colubridae, Imantodes) from the Chocó region of Ecuador. ZooKeys 244: 91. doi: 10.3897/zookeys.244.3950

Additional Information
This research was funded by Secretaría Nacional de Educación Superior, Ciencia y Tecnología del Ecuador (SENESCYT) and Instituto Bioclon of Mexico.

Chromosome number is the most basic feature concerning the genome of a species, and it is known for about one third of higher plant species. In particular, for plants of Italy, Slovakia, and Poland, online chromosome number databases have been developed: ‘Chrobase.it – Chromosome numbers for the Italian flora’, ‘Karyological database of ferns and flowering plants of Slovakia‘ and ‘Chromosome number database – PLANTS‘, respectively. The three datasets account for about 35%, 60% and 40% of the whole floras, respectively.

"We used these datasets to compare chromosome number variation among plants of the three countries, with the aim to verify whether the patterns of chromosome number variation parallel the differences in latitudinal ranges" said Dr Peruzzi, leading author of the article, published in the open access journal Comparative Cytogenetics.

A concept that the occurrence of multiple genome copies (polyploidy) in plants tend to increase with latitude had already been formed in the second half of twentieth century, but pioneer works in this field had not significant statistical coverage, due to the absence of large, readily accessible datasets.

In the study, significant differences among the three countries were evidenced, confirming that mean chromosome number increases with increasing latitude. Mean chromosome number was used as an objective proxy of polyploidy.

In perspective, it would be interesting to verify whether the same chromosome number evolution dynamics occurs in the Austral hemisphere as well. Unfortunately, as far as we are aware, large chromosome number databases of these territories with significant latitudinal variations are not available, at the moment.

Original source
Peruzzi L, Góralski G, Joachimiak AJ, Bedini G (2012) Does actually mean chromosome number increase with latitude in vascular plants? An answer from the comparison of Italian, Slovak and Polish floras. Comparative Cytogenetics 66(4): 371–377. doi: 10.3897/CompCytogen.v6i4.3955

The first ever European-wide study of bird monitoring practices reveals a wide range of monitoring protocols. The researchers provide recommendations for improving bird monitoring programmes, in particular, for those involving large numbers of volunteers. The study was published in Pensoft’s Open Access journal Nature Conservation.

See Policy Brief (PDF) by "Science for Environment Policy": European Commission DG Environment News Alert Service

Original source:
Schmeller D, Henle K, Loyau A, Besnard A, Henry PY (2012) Bird-monitoring in Europe – a first overview of practices, motivations and aims. Nature Conservation 2: 41-57. doi: 10.3897/natureconservation.2.3644

The leggiest animal in the world, the millipede lllacme plenipes, was re-discovered several years ago in California by Paul Marek. Now, Marek and his colleagues provide further details of the surprisingly complex anatomy of this diminutive creature and its extreme rarity, limited to a handful of spots just south of San Francisco. More details about the species and its biology can be read in an article that was recently published in the open access journal ZooKeys.

Millipedes have the most legs of any animal group. From their ancestors with just one pair of legs per body segment, millipedes evolved two pairs (four total) through segmental fusion. This coalescence of segments happened deep in the evolutionary history of millipedes, more than 400 million years ago. Four legs provide more thrust on a per segment basis, which benefits millipedes to help them burrow underground–e.g., to escape predators or access new resources. Those individuals with a coalescence of segments and hence a better burrowing ability, were able to persist in this early primordial ecosystem.

The most noticeable thing about millipedes are their number of legs, which lined up along their bodysides step in synchronous "metachronal waves". The acme of legginess in millipedes, and all animals for that matter, is the Californian species Illacme plenipes (literally meaning "in highest fulfillment of feet"). The females have up to an astounding 750 legs, outclassing the males who only have a maximum leg count of 562. The proliferation of legs may be an adaptation for its lifestyle spent burrowing underground or (based on the presence of features like legs with bifurcate claws and other traits known to be associated with rock-climbing in millipedes) enable it to cling tightly to the sandstone boulders found exclusively associated with the species in its habitat.

"This relict species is the only representative of its family in the Western Hemisphere. Its closest presumed relative, Nematozonium filum, lives in South Africa and this early relationship was established more than 200 million years ago when the continents coalesced in the landmass Pangaea", said the lead author Dr Paul Marek, from the University of Arizona.

Not only is this species the leggiest animal known on the planet, it also has surprising anatomical features: body hairs that produce silk, a jagged and scaly translucent exoskeleton, and comparatively massive (given its diminutive size) antennae that are used to feel its way through the dark because it lacks eyes. Its mouth, unlike other millipedes that chew with developed grinding mouthparts, is rudimentary and fused into structures that are probably used for piercing and sucking plant or fungal tissues.

This rare and ancient-looking creature’s home is California, on the outskirts of Silicon Valley. The species is exceedingly scarce and limited to just a single tiny area near San Juan Bautista, just east of the San Andreas Fault. Based on the known environmental conditions where it lives, the species’ probable distribution elsewhere in California was inferred. Yet still restricted to a small geographical range, the analysis indicated other areas of suitability limited to the terrestrial areas on the edge of Monterey Bay eastward to San Juan Bautista and throughout the Salinas Valley. What’s unique about this area, and seems to be correlated with the model’s area of highest suitability, is the thick layer of fog that accumulates in the area–like soup in a deep bowl. The fog and the species’ unique set of features in its habitat (oak forests, sandstone boulders, and fine sandy soil) make this area a special place and certainly deserving of attention as the home of this rare and superlative beast.

Original source
Marek PE, Shear WA, Bond JE (2012) A redescription of the leggiest animal, the millipede Illacme plenipes, with notes on its natural history and biogeography (Diplopoda, Siphonophorida, Siphonorhinidae). ZooKeys 241: 77. doi: 10.3897/zookeys.241.3831

See a video on YouTube: The millipede Illacme plenipes, with 662 legs, showing live movement.

Arboreal tarantulas are known from a few tropical places in Asia, Africa, South and Central America and the Caribbean. These tarantulas generally have a lighter build, thinner bodies and longer legs, better suited for their habitat. They have increased surface area at the ends of their legs, allowing them to better climb different surfaces, while their light build makes them more agile.

Their core area is the Amazon, from where most of the species are known and normally very common, living in the jungle or even in house’s surroundings. Now, nine new species were described from Central and Eastern Brazil, including four of the smallest arboreal species ever recorded.

The study was performed by Dr Rogério Bertani, who is a tarantula specialist and a researcher at the Instituto Butantan in Sao Paulo, Brazil. His results have been published in the open access journal ZooKeys.

"Instead of the seven species formerly known in the region, we now have sixteen", said Dr Bertani. "In a resurrected genus with a mysterious single species known from 1841, we have now five species". "These are the smallest arboreal tarantulas in the world, and their analysis suggests the genus to be very old, so they can be considered relicts of a formerly more widely distributed taxon".

Other discoveries include new species of tarantulas living inside bromeliads. "Only a single species had been known to live exclusively inside these plants, and now we have another that specialized in bromeliads as well". A further species was found at the top of table mountains where trees are rare. "This species also inhabits bromeliads, one of the few places for an arboreal tarantula to live that offer water and a retreat against the intense sunlight" he says.

The discovery of all these new species outside the Amazon was unexpected and illustrates how little we know of the fauna surrounding us, even from hot spots of threatened biodiversity like the Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest and the Cerrado (a kind of savannah vegetation). These species are highly endemic and the regions where they live are suffering high pressure from human activities. Therefore, studies for their conservation are necessaries. Furthermore, all these new species are colorful, which could attract the interest for capturing them for the pet trade, constituting another threat.

Original source
Bertani R (2012) Revision, cladistic analysis and biogeography of Typhochlaena C. L. Koch, 1850, Pachistopelma Pocock, 1901 and Iridopelma Pocock, 1901 (Araneae, Theraphosidae, Aviculariinae). ZooKeys 230: 1-94. doi: 10.3897/zookeys.230.3500

About ZooKeys
ZooKeys is a peer-reviewed, open-access journal launched to support free exchange of ideas and information in biodiversity science, issued by Pensoft Publishers. All papers published in ZooKeys can be freely copied, downloaded, printed and distributed at no charge for the reader. ZooKeys implemented several cutting-edge innovation in publishing and dissemination of science information and is considered a technological leader in its field.