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The leggiest animal in the world, the millipede lllacme plenipes, was re-discovered several years ago in California by Paul Marek. Now, Marek and his colleagues provide further details of the surprisingly complex anatomy of this diminutive creature and its extreme rarity, limited to a handful of spots just south of San Francisco. More details about the species and its biology can be read in an article that was recently published in the open access journal ZooKeys.

Millipedes have the most legs of any animal group. From their ancestors with just one pair of legs per body segment, millipedes evolved two pairs (four total) through segmental fusion. This coalescence of segments happened deep in the evolutionary history of millipedes, more than 400 million years ago. Four legs provide more thrust on a per segment basis, which benefits millipedes to help them burrow underground–e.g., to escape predators or access new resources. Those individuals with a coalescence of segments and hence a better burrowing ability, were able to persist in this early primordial ecosystem.

The most noticeable thing about millipedes are their number of legs, which lined up along their bodysides step in synchronous "metachronal waves". The acme of legginess in millipedes, and all animals for that matter, is the Californian species Illacme plenipes (literally meaning "in highest fulfillment of feet"). The females have up to an astounding 750 legs, outclassing the males who only have a maximum leg count of 562. The proliferation of legs may be an adaptation for its lifestyle spent burrowing underground or (based on the presence of features like legs with bifurcate claws and other traits known to be associated with rock-climbing in millipedes) enable it to cling tightly to the sandstone boulders found exclusively associated with the species in its habitat.

"This relict species is the only representative of its family in the Western Hemisphere. Its closest presumed relative, Nematozonium filum, lives in South Africa and this early relationship was established more than 200 million years ago when the continents coalesced in the landmass Pangaea", said the lead author Dr Paul Marek, from the University of Arizona.

Not only is this species the leggiest animal known on the planet, it also has surprising anatomical features: body hairs that produce silk, a jagged and scaly translucent exoskeleton, and comparatively massive (given its diminutive size) antennae that are used to feel its way through the dark because it lacks eyes. Its mouth, unlike other millipedes that chew with developed grinding mouthparts, is rudimentary and fused into structures that are probably used for piercing and sucking plant or fungal tissues.

This rare and ancient-looking creature’s home is California, on the outskirts of Silicon Valley. The species is exceedingly scarce and limited to just a single tiny area near San Juan Bautista, just east of the San Andreas Fault. Based on the known environmental conditions where it lives, the species’ probable distribution elsewhere in California was inferred. Yet still restricted to a small geographical range, the analysis indicated other areas of suitability limited to the terrestrial areas on the edge of Monterey Bay eastward to San Juan Bautista and throughout the Salinas Valley. What’s unique about this area, and seems to be correlated with the model’s area of highest suitability, is the thick layer of fog that accumulates in the area–like soup in a deep bowl. The fog and the species’ unique set of features in its habitat (oak forests, sandstone boulders, and fine sandy soil) make this area a special place and certainly deserving of attention as the home of this rare and superlative beast.

Original source
Marek PE, Shear WA, Bond JE (2012) A redescription of the leggiest animal, the millipede Illacme plenipes, with notes on its natural history and biogeography (Diplopoda, Siphonophorida, Siphonorhinidae). ZooKeys 241: 77. doi: 10.3897/zookeys.241.3831

See a video on YouTube: The millipede Illacme plenipes, with 662 legs, showing live movement.

Arboreal tarantulas are known from a few tropical places in Asia, Africa, South and Central America and the Caribbean. These tarantulas generally have a lighter build, thinner bodies and longer legs, better suited for their habitat. They have increased surface area at the ends of their legs, allowing them to better climb different surfaces, while their light build makes them more agile.

Their core area is the Amazon, from where most of the species are known and normally very common, living in the jungle or even in house’s surroundings. Now, nine new species were described from Central and Eastern Brazil, including four of the smallest arboreal species ever recorded.

The study was performed by Dr Rogério Bertani, who is a tarantula specialist and a researcher at the Instituto Butantan in Sao Paulo, Brazil. His results have been published in the open access journal ZooKeys.

"Instead of the seven species formerly known in the region, we now have sixteen", said Dr Bertani. "In a resurrected genus with a mysterious single species known from 1841, we have now five species". "These are the smallest arboreal tarantulas in the world, and their analysis suggests the genus to be very old, so they can be considered relicts of a formerly more widely distributed taxon".

Other discoveries include new species of tarantulas living inside bromeliads. "Only a single species had been known to live exclusively inside these plants, and now we have another that specialized in bromeliads as well". A further species was found at the top of table mountains where trees are rare. "This species also inhabits bromeliads, one of the few places for an arboreal tarantula to live that offer water and a retreat against the intense sunlight" he says.

The discovery of all these new species outside the Amazon was unexpected and illustrates how little we know of the fauna surrounding us, even from hot spots of threatened biodiversity like the Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest and the Cerrado (a kind of savannah vegetation). These species are highly endemic and the regions where they live are suffering high pressure from human activities. Therefore, studies for their conservation are necessaries. Furthermore, all these new species are colorful, which could attract the interest for capturing them for the pet trade, constituting another threat.

Original source
Bertani R (2012) Revision, cladistic analysis and biogeography of Typhochlaena C. L. Koch, 1850, Pachistopelma Pocock, 1901 and Iridopelma Pocock, 1901 (Araneae, Theraphosidae, Aviculariinae). ZooKeys 230: 1-94. doi: 10.3897/zookeys.230.3500

About ZooKeys
ZooKeys is a peer-reviewed, open-access journal launched to support free exchange of ideas and information in biodiversity science, issued by Pensoft Publishers. All papers published in ZooKeys can be freely copied, downloaded, printed and distributed at no charge for the reader. ZooKeys implemented several cutting-edge innovation in publishing and dissemination of science information and is considered a technological leader in its field.

We are establishing a next generation platform for publishing biodiversity science and data. The Biodiversity Data Journal (http://www.pensoft.net/journals/bdj) is a comprehensive online platform designed to accelerate publishing, dissemination and sharing of biodiversity-related data of any kind. Contributions will be accepted on a wide range of biodiversity subjects and will be published in association with major data repositories (e.g. GBIF, Dryad, GenBank) using a number of Biological Code-compliant templates. These templates make it easy to write manuscripts, review text and share data. A concise leaflet on BDJ can be downloaded from here.

In preparation for launching the journal we are seeking editorial specialists with expertise in subjects and data types (e.g. taxon treatments, checklists, genomic-, ecological- and environmental-datasets, analytical methods and software) who can be involved in the innovative reviewing process. Potential editors should be interested in new ideas, methods and approaches to publishing, sharing and using biodiversity information. Established specialists, post-doctoral researchers and PhD  students with relevant experience should not hesitate to apply using the short form linked below:

Editor Application Form

A European-wide network for systematic GMO impact assessment proposed

In Europe there are many concerns about adverse environmental effects of genetically modified (GM) crops, and the opinions on the outcomes of environmental risk assessments (ERA) differ largely. GM crop safety testing and studies on the standardisation of impact assessments of releases are insufficiently developed. Therefore a framework was published in the open access journal BioRisk, which aims at improving the European regulatory/legal system.

Specific elements of the network are a) methodologies for both indicator and field site selection for GM crop ERA and PMEM, b) an EU-wide typology of agro-environments, c) a pan-European field testing network using GM crops, d) specific hypotheses on GM crop effects, and e) state-of-the art sampling, statistics and modelling approaches. Involving actors from various sectors the network will address public concerns and create confidence in the ENSyGMO results.

"Assessing GMOs on the basis of separate criteria may yield misleading results, with negative consequences for both nature and mankind. The impact of GMO should be analysed using integrated approaches and methods at various scales. We are convinced that the proposed assessment framework has the potential to set up a new standard in regulation of the usage of GMO" commented Dr Josef Settele from Helmholtz Center for Environmental Research – UFZ, Halle and Editor-in-Chief of BioRisk.

Original source
Graef F, Römbke J, Binimelis R, Myhr AI, Hilbeck A, Breckling B, Dalgaard T, Stachow U, Catacora-Vargas G, Bøhn T, Quist D, Darvas B, Dudel G, Oehen B, Meyer H, Henle K, Wynne B, Metzger MJ, Knäbe S, Settele J, Székács A, Wurbs A, Bernard J, Murphy-Bokern D, Buiatti M, Giovannetti M, Debeljak M, Andersen E, Paetz A, Dzeroski S, Tappeser B, van Gestel CAM, Wosniok W, Séralini G-E, Aslaksen I, Pesch R, Maly S, Werner A (2012) A framework for a European network for a systematic environmental impact assessment of genetically modified organisms (GMO). BioRisk 7: 73. doi: 10.3897/biorisk.7.1969

Increasing demand for bioenergy feedstock is generating land-use conflicts which are currently discussed in the food vs. fuel controversy and the debate about indirect land-use change. Concepts for solving those conflicts suggest a spatial segregation of food/feed and bioenergy producing areas. It is suggested to continue producing food/feed on established agricultural land while growing dedicated energy crops on so called "surplus" land.

Confusion in the applicability of those concepts is however caused by ambiguity in the definition and characterization of surplus land as well as by uncertainties in assessments of land availability, both on the national and the global scale, and of the potential yields of bioenergy crops when grown on surplus land.

‘We still have limited understanding of how much land is truly surplus and suitable for energy crop production’ said Dr Dauber, the lead author of the study, ‘because constraints arising from environmental and socio-economic implications of bioenergy development in those areas are often not accounted for in assessments of land availability’.

The authors suggest a thorough reassessment of land availability for bioenergy production by clarifying the terminology of surplus land and taking both constraints and options for efficient and sustainable bioenergy-land use into account. Policy recommendations for resolving conflicting land-use demands are provided.

In Dr Daubers opinion, ‘factoring in the constraints, combined with creativity in utilizing the options provided by the novel cropping systems, would lead to a more sustainable and efficient development of the bioenergy sector’.

Original source
Dauber J, Brown C, Fernando AL, Finnan J, Krasuska E, Ponitka J, Styles D, Thrän D, Van Groenigen KJ, Weih M, Zah R (2012) Bioenergy from "surplus" land: environmental and socio-economic implications. BioRisk 7: 5-50. doi: 10.3897/biorisk.7.3036

About BioRisk
BioRisk is a peer-reviewed, open-access journal launched to support free exchange of ideas and information in environmental science, issued by Pensoft Publishers. All papers published in BioRisk can be freely copied, downloaded, printed and distributed at no charge for the reader.

Additional Information
Renewable Fuels Agency
UNEP
Dauber J, Jones M, Stout J (2010) The impact of biomass crop cultivation on temperate biodiversity. GCB Bioenergy 2: 289. doi: 10.1111/j.1757-1707.2010.01058.x
Baum S, Weih M, Bolte A (2012) Stand age characteristics and soil properties affect species composition of vascular plants in short rotation coppice plantations. BioRisk 7: 51-71. doi: 10.3897/biorisk.7.2699
Dornburg V, van Vuuren D, van de Ven G, Langeveld H, Meeusen M, Banse M, van Oorschot M, Ros J, van den Born GJ, Aiking H, Londo M, Mozaffarian H, Verweij P, Lyseng E, Faaij A (2010) Bioenergy revisited: Key factors in global potentials of bioenergy. Energy & Environmental Science 3: 258.
Haberl H, Beringer T, Bhattacharya SC, Erb K-H, Hoogwijk M (2010) The global technical potential of bio-energy in 2050 considering sustainability constraints. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 2: 394. doi: 10.1016/j.cosust.2010.10.007
Krasuska E, Cadórniga C, Tenorio JL, Testa G, Scordia D (2010) Potential land availability for energy crops production in Europe. Biofuels, Bioproducts & Biorefining 4: 658. doi: 10.1002/bbb.259
The Royal Society (2008) Sustainable biofuels: prospects and challenges. Policy document 01/08: 1.

Mountain marvels of French Polynesia

Do you have it in mind to go to a mountain top and study beetles that nobody else has ever seen? Well, there are two fewer such mountains available now that beetle species discovered on Mont Tohiea and Mont Mauru in the Society Islands have been named. James Liebherr, Curator of the Cornell University Insect Collection, has just described 14 species of predatory carabid beetle, also called ground beetles, as part of a U.S. National Science Foundation team that surveyed the insects and spiders of French Polynesia.

Liebherr described the species in two papers published in the on-line journal, ZooKeys, taking advantage of the recent changes to rules that now allow electronic publication of names for newly described animal species.

The new beetles are members of the genus Mecyclothorax, a group that seems to have found a home in remote Pacific Islands. The Society Islands have about 100 species, and the Hawaiian Islands support well over 200 species. Conversely, the Australian continent, where all this evolution presumably started, is home to a mere 25 species. Like the flightless Dodos of Mauritius, all the Pacific Island beetles are flightless, whereas many of the Australian species can fly.

Liebherr’s discoveries of the seven new species on Moorea’s Mont Tohiea expands the known distribution of the genus in the Society Islands from Tahiti to the island of Moorea, mirroring the distribution of related beetles in Hawaii, where members of the genus are recorded from Oahu to Hawaii Island. In Tahiti and Moorea these beetles are very rarely recorded below 1000 m elevation, so the new species have very limited geographic distributions. "When we travel to a new mountain we find only new species. It’s like moving to a different continent as far as these beetles are concerned" says Liebherr. Being able to identify these small areas of endemism is essential for justifying conservation programs that can maintain biodiversity.

The new species take their place in the Tahitian fauna next to 67 species revised by the late Dr. Georges Perrault, whose collection of Tahitian beetles is housed at the Natural History Museum in Paris. "Georges Perrault made this study possible through his valuable work describing the Tahitian beetle fauna. If he hadn’t completed his work, we would not have been able to gain the support needed to expand upon his studies of this remarkable fauna" states Liebherr. These new species are not the end of biodiversity discovery for these beetles and their relatives.

Liebherr is working in the lab to name more collected from other mountains, and many more no doubt occur on unexplored peaks. Conservation programs in French Polynesia will be busy for a long time documenting these hidden gems of the Pacific.

Original sources:
Liebherr J (2012) The first precinctive Carabidae from Moorea, Society Islands: new Mecyclothorax spp. (Coleoptera) from the summit of Mont Tohiea. ZooKeys 224: 37-80. doi: 10.3897/zookeys.224.3675
Liebherr J (2012) New Mecyclothorax spp. (Coleoptera, Carabidae, Moriomorphini) define Mont Mauru, eastern Tahiti Nui, as a distinct area of endemism. ZooKeys 227: 63-99. doi: 10.3897/zookeys.227.3797

About ZooKeys
ZooKeys is a peer-reviewed, open-access journal launched to support free exchange of ideas and information in biodiversity science, issued by Pensoft Publishers. All papers published in ZooKeys can be freely copied, downloaded, printed and distributed at no charge for the reader. ZooKeys implemented several cutting-edge innovation in publishing and dissemination of science information and is considered a technological leader in its field.

Additional Information
National Science Foundation DEB-0451971; Biotic Surveys and Inventory: Arthropods of French Polynesia (R. G. Gillespie, PI) Richard B. Gump South Pacific Field Station http://moorea.berkeley.edu/

Coral named Leptoseris troglodyta sheds light on coral-algal symbiosis

Coral specialist Dr. Bert W. Hoeksema of Naturalis Biodiversity Center in Leiden, The Netherlands, recently published the description of a new coral species that lives on the ceilings of caves in Indo-Pacific coral reefs. It differs from its closest relatives by its small polyp size and by the absence of symbiotic algae, so-called zooxanthellae. Its distribution range overlaps with the Coral Triangle, an area that is famous for its high marine species richness. Marine zoologists of Naturalis visit this area frequently to explore its marine biodiversity.

Reef corals in shallow tropical seas normally need the symbiotic algae for their survival and growth. Without these algae, many coral reefs would not exist. During periods of elevated seawater temperature, most reef corals lose their algae, which is visible as a dramatic whitening of the reefs, a coral disease known as bleaching.

Most reef corals generally do not occur over 40 m depth, a twilight zone where sunlight is not bright anymore, but some species of the genus Leptoseris are exceptional and may even occur much deeper. At greater depths, seawater is generally colder and corals here may be less susceptible to bleaching than those at shallower depths. Despite the lack of zooxanthellae and its small size, the skeleton structures of the new species indicate that it is closely related to these Leptoseris corals, although it has not been found deeper than 35 m so far.

The species is named Leptoseris troglodyta. The word troglodyta is derived from ancient Greek and means "one who dwells in holes", a cave dweller. The discovery sheds new light on the relation of reef corals with symbiotic algae. The new species has adapted to a life without them. Consequently, it may not grow fast, which would be convenient because space is limited on cave ceilings. The species description is published in the open access journal ZooKeys.

Original source
Hoeksema BW (2012) Forever in the dark: the cave-dwelling azooxanthellate reef coral Leptoseris troglodyta sp. n. (Scleractinia, Agariciidae). ZooKeys 228: 21. doi: 10.3897/zookeys.228.3798

About ZooKeys
ZooKeys is a peer-reviewed, open-access journal launched to support free exchange of ideas and information in biodiversity science, issued by Pensoft Publishers. All papers published in ZooKeys can be freely copied, downloaded, printed and distributed at no charge for the reader. ZooKeys implemented several cutting-edge innovation in publishing and dissemination of science information and is considered a technological leader in its field.

A recently published monograph on heterodontosaurs with description of Pegomastax africana by Paul Sereno from the University of Chicago was featured in all world’s leading news media! It truly is a fantastic animal – you may want to have a look at some of the postings:

BBC: Dwarf ‘vampire dinosar was a plant eater

CNN: Scientist describes fruit-loving, housecat-sized dino

National Geographic: New fanged dwarf dinosaur found, "Would be nice pet"

New York Times: Bizarre species of miniature dinosaur identified

The Guardian: "Fanged vampire parrot" identified as a new species of dinosaur

Scientific American: Diminutive dinosaur bore beak, bristles and fangs

USA Today: Fanged dinosaur feasted on fruit

Time: A parrot-headed, big-fanged, porcupine dinosaur

Original source
Sereno P (2012) Taxonomy, morphology, masticatory function and phylogeny of heterodontosaurid dinosaurs. ZooKeys 226: 1-225. doi: 10.3897/zookeys.226.2840

 

The single specimen of the new species was originally chipped out of red rock in southern Africa in the 1960’s and discovered in a collection of fossils at Harvard University by National Geographic Explorer-in-Residence Paul Sereno, paleontologist and professor at the University of Chicago. Details of the dinosaur’s anatomy and lifestyle are part of a monograph by Sereno dedicated to these puny herbivores and published in the online journal ZooKeys and on the website of the National Geographic Society.

Named Pegomastax africanus, or "thick jaw from Africa", the new species has a short parrot-shaped beak up front, a pair of stabbing canines, and tall teeth tucked behind for slicing plants. The tall teeth in upper and lower jaws operated like self-sharpening scissors, with shearing wear facets that slid past one another when the jaws closed. The parrot-shaped skull, less than three inches long, may have been adapted to plucking fruit.

"Very rare", admits Sereno, "that a plant-eater like Pegomastax would sport sharp-edged, enlarged canines" like that of a vampire. Some scientists have argued that consuming meat or at the least insects was a good part of the diet of heterodontosaurs, which evolved near the root of the great bird-hipped radiation of dinosaurs that includes the famous plant-eaters Triceratops and Stegosaurus.

Self-defense and competitive sparring for mates is more likely their role, argues Sereno in the study, based on microscopic examination of the teeth of Pegomastax and kin. Wear facets and chipped enamel suggest that the fangs of Pegomastax and other heterodontosaurs were used like those of living fanged deer for nipping or even digging rather than slicing flesh.

A bizarre covering of bristles, something like that of a porcupine, likely covered most of the body of Pegomastax, which measured less than two-feet in length and weighed less than a housecat. These bristles first came to light in a similar-sized heterodontosaur, Tianyulong, discovered recently in China and described in the study. Buried in lake sediment and covered by volcanic ash, Tianyulong preserves hundreds of bristles spread across its body from its neck to the tip of its tail. In life, dwarf-sized heterodontosaurs like Pegomastax would have scampered around in search of suitable plants, says Sereno, looking something like a "nimble two-legged porcupine".

When Pegomastax lived some 200 million years ago, the supercontinent Pangaea had just begun to split into northern and southern landmasses. Heterodontosaurs appear to have divided similarly, the study argues, the northern species with simple triangular teeth like Tianyulong and the southern species with taller crowns like Pegomastax.

Sereno marvels at these punk-sized early herbivores that spread across the globe. Although virtually unknown to the public, "Pegomastax and kin were the most advanced plant-eaters of their day".

Original source:
Sereno PC (2012) Taxonomy, morphology, masticatory function and phylogeny of heterodontosaurid dinosaurs. ZooKeys 226: 1-225. doi: 10.3897/zookeys.226.2840

Multimedia:
New dinosaur dwarf Pegomastax from South Africa
With jaws only 1-inch in length, plant-eating Pegomastax (“thick jaw”) is one of the smallest dinosaurs ever discovered. Drawing by Todd Marshall.
Heterodontosaurus flesh model & skull—photo (2a; 2b)
Skin, scales and quills are added to a cast of the skull of Heterodontosaurus, the best known heterodontosaurid from South Africa.  Photo and sculpting by Tyler Keillor.
Heterodontosaurids as dinosaur dwarfs
Some heterodontosaurids, such as South African Pegomastax or Chinese Tianyulong (shown here), grew to less than 2 feet in length and rank as dwarfs in the dinosaur era. Drawing by Paul Sereno and Carol Abraczinskas.
—VIDEO—Making of Heterodontosaurus flesh model
Muscles, skin, scales and quills are added to a skull cast of Heterodontosaurus.  Video and sculpting by Tyler Keillor.

Vince Smith, Dave Roberts & Lyubomir Penev video presentation at the Linnean Society on 20th September 2012.