Pensoft Editorial Team

Biodiversity restated: > 99.9% of global species in Soil Biota

Soil’s vast biodiversity is under severe threat from topsoil erosion and poisoning, potentially leading to widespread extinctions.

More than 99.9% of global species diversity is found within soils, according to a new review paper published in ZooKeys.

Comparing different studies on soil biota, author Robert J. Blakemore challenges previous estimates, which suggested a much lower proportion of life in soils. “Most life is found in Soil and most is microbial, affected by the current mass extinction event having profound effects influencing all evolution on Earth,” he says.

From the review paper: “Micro monde” progressions with microbial proportions greatly increased from Blakemore after Larsen et al.

“Soil filters and stores freshwater stocks (being subject to Earth tides!) and, as well as ~ 99% of human food, it provides most building materials plus many of our essential medicines/antibiotics. Thus, an important metric must be the scope and snapshot status of living or dormant Soil biota.”

One of the most recent estimates suggests that the soil realm is home to approximately 2.1 x 10²⁴ taxa, which is thought to be more than 99.9% of global species biodiversity, mainly comprised of bacteria and other microbes.

The more you look, the more you find (lhs, pin-head after SCIENCE 2002; rhs, Bacteria on a pin tip courtesy Dr Kateryna Kon of Kharkiv National Medical University).

“Soil also supplies >99.7% of calorific food (just 0.3% from ocean plus 0.3% from aquaculture mostly fed with farmed stockfeed); with just about 6% total global protein from all fish; soil filters and stores most freshwater and is thus responsible for hydrological-recycle rainfall on land,” Blakemore says.

“My other paper last year on Biomass shows Soil houses >99% of organic carbon and it is the loss of this vital resources that is the greatest contributor to atmospheric carbon increase, despite the ‘greening’ effect on land.”

Blakemore, R. J. (2024). Biomass Refined: 99% of Organic Carbon in Soils. Biomass, 4(4), 1257-1300. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomass4040070.

However, this immense biodiversity is under threat. “Soil erosion is one of our greatest global issues of concern, and one of the most ignored. Droughts, floods, deserts, poisoning, capping and so on are affecting all soils and, due to this massive soil loss, plants are incapable of thriving. At the same time deforestation continues, mainly clearing for cattle pastures or soy fields to feed CAFO cows (or other stock),” the author says.

The loss of soil biodiversity has far-reaching consequences, leading to ecosystem degradation, reduced food production, and loss of potentially valuable resources, such as sources of medicines and antibiotics. Furthermore, soil loss inevitably results in silent species loss, mostly of microbes that are most dominant in soils, but also of more obvious soil macrobes, and specifically of earthworms, which are vital for soil health.

Around 7,000 ‘true’ earthworm species have been described, but estimates suggest the total number of earthworm species may be closer to 30,000-35,000 globally. “Due to their high endemicity and Soil’s heterogeneity, their unknowns are legion,” the author notes in his paper.

From the review paper: Global Soil Biodiversity Atlas (GBIF 2016) reporting ~ 667,000 soil biota or just about one third of known 2 million). Note that earthworms have 7,000 known and > 30,000 estimated species. Bacteria had 15,000 known species but estimated over one million (< 1.5% described). However, when microbes (excluding viruses) are properly considered and counted, as herein, soil unknowns are much higher (likely just < 0.0001% known at best). Vascular plants add ~ 400,000 species (cf. Anthony et al. 2023 with 466,000 angiosperm “Plantae”).

Earthworms enhance microbial activity, improve soil structure, and promote plant growth, which is why Blakemore suggests that “a simple solution to soil degradation is to attempt, in any way and at all times, to preserve and enhance earthworm populations.”

“Healthy soils are carbon-rich, hugely biodiverse and are a massive sponge for water – neither flooding nor drying during climatic extremes,” the author says, a reminder that healthy soils are not only vital for maintaining biodiversity, but also indispensable in supporting essential functions of planet and human survival.

“Due to the most pressing problem of topsoil erosion and irreversible extinction losses, a major shift should be realizing the overwhelming importance and fragility of our precious Soil,” Robert Blakemore writes in his paper.

Calling for a change in attitudes and funding to recognise the true scope of soil biodiversity, he encourages the formation of a dedicated Soil Ecology Institute that would catalogue, research and reverse the mass degradation of our planet’s most crucial, yet most neglected ecosystem – that of the Soil Realm.

References:

Blakemore RJ (2025) Biodiversity restated: > 99.9% of global species in Soil Biota. ZooKeys 1224: 283-316. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.1224.131153

Blakemore, R. J. (2024). Biomass Refined: 99% of Organic Carbon in Soils. Biomass, 4(4), 1257-1300. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomass4040070.

Blog post on the topic by Robert J. Blakemore: https://vermecology.wordpress.com/2025/02/10/tandc

Airport dogs can prevent invasive pests from entering new territories

Biosecurity inspectors and detector dogs are an effective combination in combatting the spread of invasive species.

Researchers at the University of Melbourne’s Centre of Excellence for Biosecurity Risk Analysis (CEBRA) have highlighted biosecurity risks posed by air passengers and emphasised the value of border interventions such as detector dogs in mitigating these threats.

Published in the open-access journal NeoBiota, the study focused on domestic air travel into Tasmania, Australia, an island state with an especially low pest presence due to its geographic isolation.

Airport sign reading 'biosecurity Tasmania'

Researchers utilised an extensive database of more than 66,000 biosecurity risk interceptions from over 6 million passengers entering Tasmania from mainland Australia. With this, they applied advanced statistical modelling tools to assess how effective different interventions are at catching risky material at the border.

Their analysis found that air passengers pose a significant biosecurity risk, with pests potentially introduced via items like fruits, vegetables, and animal products carried in luggage.

To combat this risk, border interventions using biosecurity inspectors and detector dogs were found to be effective, both by encouraging voluntary declarations by passengers and detecting risk items that passengers failed to declare.

While biosecurity inspectors play a significant role, detector dogs are especially effective, detecting a higher rate of risky items and targeting undeclared materials that might otherwise go unnoticed. The presence of detector dogs substantially increased interception rates, including for items linked to the spread of the invasive fruit fly.

Airport sign reading 'Help protect out beautiful island - biosecurity acheckpoint'

Lead author Dr Nicholas Moran said: “Dogs being great at sniffing things out might seem obvious, but measuring precisely how effective different interventions are, what they capture, and how, is incredibly valuable information for biosecurity operations.

“Fruit flies are a serious risk to Tasmania, and many parts of the world. So, this work is about knowing what biosecurity interventions to deploy, and where is best to deploy them to reduce the risk of outbreaks.”

The study is a part of the “Risk Analysis of Tasmanian Border Inspection Approaches and Procedures” project, conducted by CEBRA with Biosecurity Tasmania. The two-phase project investigated the invasive risk of five pest species that are common across Australia’s mainland but are not currently found in Tasmania.

Original study

Moran NP, Hanea AM, Robinson AP (2025) Border biosecurity interceptions for air passengers – assessing intervention methods and analytic tools. NeoBiota 97: 161-178. https://doi.org/10.3897/neobiota.97.141784

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The Ghibli fish: new ‘painted’ species named after Princess Mononoke

The deepwater tilefish was first spotted by researchers on an online seafood market.

Picture in your mind the discovery of a new species.

What do you see? Researchers cutting through dense, untouched rainforests? Perhaps a submarine plunging into a deep-sea trench, illuminating a new world?

Well, it’s not always quite so dramatic. In fact, researchers in China discovered Branchiostegus sanae when they were scrolling through online seafood markets and noticed some deepwater tilefish with unique cheek patterns.

A tilefish with red and white facial markings. — *Branchiostegus sanae*. Credit: Huang et al.

These red-and-white facial markings reminded the research team of the Studio Ghibli character San from Princess Mononoke, whom they chose to honour in their naming of the species.

Published in the open-access journal ZooKeys, Branchiostegus sanae is a deepwater tilefish belonging to the family Branchiostegidae. Researchers confirmed its new-species status using genetic analysis, and chose “sanae” as the specific epithet (that’s the part that differentiates species within a genus), in a nod to Hayao Miyazaki’s animated creation.

Tilefish with red and white facial markings for sale at a seafood market. — *Branchiostegus sanae* at a seafood market. Credit: Jiangyuan Chen.

“Finding a new species in this group is a rare and fortunate event, especially one as distinctive as Branchiostegus sanae.

“In Princess Mononoke, San is a young woman raised by wolves after being abandoned by her human parents. She sees herself as a part of the forest and fights to protect it. The film delves into the complex relationship between humans and nature, promoting a message of harmonious coexistence between the two: something we hope to echo through this naming.”
Lead author, Haochen Huang.

The Chinese fishermen who sell the new-to-science species call it the“鬼马头鱼” (ghost horsehead fish), and this also contributed to the species name because, fittingly, “Mononoke” (もののけ) refers to supernatural spirits in Japanese folklore.

San, a warrior princess, from the animated film Princess Mononoke holding a spear. — San from *Princess Mononoke*. Credit: © 1997 Hayao Miyazaki/Studio Ghibli, ND.

As their name suggests, deepwater tilefish are found at great depths, with some species found 600 m below the surface. They are important food fish, commonly found in seafood markets in East and Southeast Asia.

Branchiostegus sanae is far from the only new species discovered at a seafood market. Indeed, a new giant isopod was recently dicovered in the same way – and also recieved a pop-culture inspired name. Check it out below!

The Dark Side of the ocean: New giant sea bug species named after Darth Vader

So far only 31 species are described in the family Branchiostegidae, and 19 species in the genus Branchiostegus. From 1990 to 2024, only three new species of Branchiostegus have been described.

Five tilefish species in a grid. — Other species of the genus *Branchiostegus* found in Chinese waters. Credit: Huang et al.

The study, led by researchers from the South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Science, Zhejiang University and Ocean University of China, involved a combination of morphological analysis and genetic sequencing. Specimens were deposited in prestigious marine biological collections in China to facilitate future research.

Original study

Huang H, Chen J, Ke Z, Zhang C (2025) Branchiostegus sanae, a new species of deepwater tilefish (Eupercaria, Branchiostegidae) from the South China Sea. ZooKeys 1227: 129–142. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.1227.130512

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Take vegetation succession into account when planning solar parks, otherwise problems can grow up

The planning and sustainable management of ground-mounted solar parks can be enhanced by the consideration of vegetation succession.

Large-scale ground-mounted solar parks are relatively new phenomena. Over time, ideas have been put forward about how they can accommodate biodiversity, and some parks are indeed becoming more multifunctional, for example by providing habitats for plants, invertebrates and birds. From a background of studying idyllic ecosystems in dynamic change, Dr. Markus Zaplata, research technician at Anhalt University of Applied Sciences, Germany, has come to appreciate the biology of solar parks, and has found evidence that they can support a wide range of biodiversity.

A photo of plants growing near a solar park. — Biodiversity in solar parks is a given (here two *Mantis religiosa* nymphs) and, with the possible exception of self-seeded woody plants, is desirable. Photo by Dr Markus Zaplata

His research, published in the open-access journal One Ecosystem, proves the previously overlooked fact that vegetation succession also takes place in solar parks, and that certain intrinsic technical structures can even help self-seeded woody plants live there. Vegetation succession refers to the directional development from easily spreading but low-competitive species such as herbs and grasses towards highly competitive species such as woody plants. Mowing alone is not enough to deal with woody plants, he argues. “The fact is that subsurface woody structures continue to grow after mowing, and may at some point massively interfere with the solar installations”, he says.

With 18 years of experience in studying vegetation succession, Dr. Zaplata has supported a research project on biodiversity in solar parks since 2021.

“I do the mowing myself, so I experience the very things I write about in this paper”, he says.

Mowing can also be expensive and labour-intensive, he adds, suggesting that other construction methods and grazing could provide a more sustainable alternative.

Including insights from succession research can make global solar energy landscapes more sustainable, he argues. “The universal and unstoppable ecological process of succession is here linked to a management recommendation that can bring society closer again, on the new or neutral territory of new energy landscapes. In fact, new and old professions are connected, for example solar park manager and livestock farmer.”

A photo of willow tree stalks in a solar park. — Above-ground parts of a willow tree (*Salix* sp.) that have resisted a recent mowing campaign. Photo by Dr Markus Zaplata

“Finally, and very importantly, my article points out that experts with in-depth predictive knowledge of dynamic vegetation processes must be consulted in the future on everything that has to do with the technical transformation of landscape units, including solar parks,” he says in conclusion.

Original source

Zaplata M (2025) Management and sustainability of ground-mounted solar parks requires consideration of vegetation succession as an omnipresent process. One Ecosystem 10: e141583. https://doi.org/10.3897/oneeco.10.e141583

Anti-melanoma activity found in green-produced nanosilver-chlorhexidine complex

A trustful concentration range was established in which the active agent was effective against the cancer cells but remained non-toxic to the normal cells.

Melanoma is a fast-progressing skin cancer characterized by a high mortality rate after metastasis. Local chemotherapy could be considered a therapeutic approach only in stage 0 of progression (in situ melanoma) and in the postoperative phase after surgical removal of suspected skin lesions. For this purpose, drugs such as Imiquimod, 5-Fluorouracil, Dacarbazine, and Doxorubicin have been tested and shown positive effects. Recently, metal nanoparticles as separate therapeutic units or drug carriers have also fallen into the research focus.

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), in particular, are widely recognized as multifunctional tools in nanomedicine, drug delivery, and theranostics. They exert wide-spectrum antimicrobial and anti-tumor properties but their pharmacological effects are in a tight bond with the so-called “surface functionality”. For example, negatively charged and spherical particles are proven less toxic than positively charged particles, especially irregularly shaped (e.g., rods, wires, etc.). Still, because of this, the former are less potent anti-cancer agents.

Contemporary pharmaceutical development relies very much on eco-friendly technologies (often referred to as “green” technologies) that avoid the use of toxic solvents and reagents. This research has implemented one such method based on Camellia sinensis (green tea leaves) as a natural reducer of silver ions. To achieve enhanced antimicrobial and anti-tumor activity, the thus obtained AgNPs were further conjugated to chlorhexidine (Cx+) — a broad-spectrum antimicrobial agent and a cationic surfactant. Indeed, the AgNP-Cx+ complexes have shown highly increased antimicrobial properties, about 18-fold stronger anti-melanoma activity, and 3 times better tumor selectivity compared to the non-functionalized AgNPs.

The most valuable outcome of this new study, published in the journal Pharmacia, was the establishment of an adhesive patch prototype as a topical dosage form for the AgNP-Cx+ complex. The used polymers, Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose and Eudragit^® RS, demonstrated a lack of negative interference with the antiproliferative action of the active agent but also ensured twice as high activity and even better selectivity against the tumor cells.

Original source:

Ivanova NA (2025) Anti-melanoma activity of green-produced nanosilver-chlorhexidine complex. Pharmacia 72: 1-7. https://doi.org/10.3897/pharmacia.72.e143419

Bulgarian Pharmaceutical Scientific Society’s journal moves to high-tech ARPHA platform

Life cycle and climate adaptability of South Africa’s Cape autumn widow butterfly

A recent study published in the open-access journal African Invertebrates provides insights into the life history and behaviour of the endemic Cape autumn widow butterfly (Dira clytus), a species endemic to South Africa.

In the study, Silvia Mecenero of the Lepidopterists’ Society of Africa and Stephen Kirkman of Nelson Mandela University examine the species’ developmental stages and responses to environmental conditions, with implications for conservation efforts.

By rearing the subspecies Dira clytus clytus in controlled conditions, the researchers documented the butterfly’s complete life cycle, from egg to adult.

Image showing the various life stages of a butterfly, from egg to caterpillar to pupa to butterfly. — Photographs of the life stages of *Dira* *clytus* *clytus* a adult b eggs **c, d** newly hatched larva e first instar larva (three days old) f first instar larva preparing to moult (nine days old) **g, h** second instar larva i third instar larva j fourth instar larva **k, l** fifth instar larva m fifth instar larvae huddling together in a big group n pre-pupal form **o, p** pupa.

Two distinct pupation and adult emergence phases were identified over a period of a few months, influenced by cold temperatures, suggesting that environmental cues play a role in triggering these developmental events. The fact that two broods were found in a matter of months is interesting, because in the wild this species breeds only once a year.

The findings indicate that Dira clytus clytus could show some phenological plasticity in its response to climate change, by changing its timing of pupation and the number of broods within a year.

Such flexibility may not always be beneficial to butterflies, as shifts in phenology could lead to mismatches with the availability of their host plants. However, Dira clytus clytus is a generalist that feeds on a variety of grasses and may therefore be more adaptable to changes in its phenology.

The study was published as part of a commemorative collection of articles published in honour of the late ecologist Prof. Stefan H. Foord.

Original study

Mecenero S, Kirkman SP (2025) Life history and behavioural observations during the rearing of Dira clytus clytus (Linnaeus, 1764) (Insecta, Lepidoptera, Nymphalidae), with notes on implications for climate change adaptation. African Invertebrates 66(1): 65-72. https://doi.org/10.3897/AfrInvertebr.66.138082

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Year of the Snake: a serpent selection to celebrate Lunar New Year!

Enjoy some of our favourite snake research from across our journals.

Happy Lunar New Year! For more than a billion people worldwide, today is a day of gifts, dancing, celebration and – of course – plenty of delicious food.

Coinciding with the first new moon of the lunar calendar, the 29th of January marks the beginning of a vibrant 15-day festival, which includes 7 days of holiday in China.

As 2025 is the Year of the Snake, we have gathered some of favourite studies celebrating the the scaly world of serpents to celebrate the occasion!

The tug-of-war coral snakes

A different kind of food fight.

A study published in Herpetozoa includes incredible footage of two red-tailed coral snakes (Micrurus mipartitus) engaging in a tug-of-war over a caecilian, a legless amphibian.

Check out the video below.

Two Micrurus mipartitus snakes tugging prey in opposite directions. Credit: Henrik Bringsøe and Niels Poul Dreyer.

The event marked the first documented wild case of kleptoparasitism, or food theft, within the family Elapidae.

Read the full study here: https://doi.org/10.3897/herpetozoa.37.e112716

The Slytherin snake

10 points to Slytherin!

When naming a newly discovered green pit viper species from the Himalayas, researchers sought inspiration from the Harry Potter franchise.

Fittingly, they settled on Trimeresurus salazar, a reference to Salazar Slytherin who founded the serpent-crested Hogwarts house bearing his name.

Green snake on a branch. — *Trimeresurus salazar*. Credit: Mirza et al.

The discovery was published in the open-access journal Zoosystematics and Evolution.

Read it here: https://doi.org/10.3897/zse.96.48431

The snake in a ski mask

Slithering around in style.

Rhynchocalamus hejazicus is a recently discovered and secretive snake species from the Hejaz region of Saudi Arabia.

Upon the species’ discovery, researchers dubbed the stylish serpent “the missing piece of the puzzle” as it fills a large distribution gap for its genus.

Orange snake with a balck head on sand. — *Rhynchocalamus* *hejazicus*. Credit: Fulvio Licata.

black snake. — *Rhynchocalamus* *hejazicus*. Credit: Fulvio Licata.

Published in Zoosystematics and Evolution, the research also includes a completely black variation of of the species known as a ‘melanistic morphotype.’

Read the full study here: https://doi.org/10.3897/zse.100.123441

The eyelash viper

Separating snake species.

An expedition into the jungles and cloud forests of Colombia and Ecuador revealed five dazzling new species of eyelash vipers, previously misidentified as one species.

Published in Evolutionary Systematics, the study received global attention from publications such as National Geographic thanks to the taxonomic importance and visual appeal of the research.

Red snake on a branch. — Red-wine morph of the Central American Eyelash-Pitviper (Bothriechis nigroadspersus), photographed in the Caribbean Island Escudo de Veraguas, off the coast of Panamá. Credit: Alejandro Arteaga.

Check out the research paper here: https://doi.org/10.3897/evolsyst.8.114527

The shovel snake

Who ever said snakes can’t be cute?

Two species of African shovel-snout snakes, Prosymna confusa and Prosymna lisima, were published as new species in ZooKeys back in 2022.

Endemic to Angola, the snakes have unique beak-like snouts that allow them to dig into sandy soils. They also have backward pointed lancet-shaped teeth that they use for cutting open lizard eggs.

Yellow snake with black markings on sand. — Kalahari shovel-snout snake (*Prosymna lisima*) from southeastern Angola. Credit: Chad Keates.

As they spend the majority of their time underground, these species were not the easiest to study, but they are certainly a treat for the eyes when they surface their wedge-shaped heads!

Read more here: https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.1121.85693

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The Pensoft journal collection contains innumerable snake studies, so we could go on forever sharing our favourites. Instead, we will wish you a happy and prosperous 2025 filled with plenty of safe snake encounters.

Happy Lunar New Year!

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Clear, Open and Engaged: Pensoft’s perspective on the mission of a science communicator

Teodor Metodiev, senior communications officer at Pensoft, offers his thoughts on why and how research should be publicised today.

Teodor Metodiev, senior communications officer at Pensoft at the opening of “**The pollinators we can’t live without**” temporary exhibition at the National Museum of Natural History at the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences (Sofia, Bulgaria, 2023).

With more than three decades of experience in the domain of science communication, Pensoft has a rich perspective on what it takes to bring science into the spotlight. A testament to this is its growing projects department, where the public face of some of Europe’s most innovative research undertakings is being moulded by a cohort of experts.

Among their ranks is Teodor Metodiev, a communicator with years of experience when it comes to bridging the gap between the scientific and the public. He recently sat down for an interview to share his observations on the significance, challenges and lessons of the job.

Read below to find out how effective engagement can make today’s research tomorrow’s reality.

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Why is science communication important and how can it influence the scope and impact of today’s research?

I believe science communication is fundamental because it eliminates the gap between researchers and users of their work, be they policymakers, practitioners or other stakeholders. By combining novel and traditional communication methods, scientific knowledge, results and data are much more likely to be shared, understood, and applied. If not communicated effectively, scientific results and advances have no real impact and are simply lost in an avalanche of emerging new information.

What are the most common challenges you encounter as a science communicator?

There are many diverse challenges one could encounter as a science communicator! I believe the most common one is the overall complexity of science, which is sometimes very difficult to communicate in a clear, visually appealing way. For me personally, one of the greater challenges is to delve into controversial topics such as climate change, vaccines, or genetic engineering, where emotions and ideologies may run high.

How can complex technical concepts be made accessible to non-science stakeholders and the general public?

Making complex concepts accessible to the general public is among the main responsibilities of a science communicator. There are many different approaches to do that, but it ultimately depends on the audience you want to engage – for example, you would not necessarily want to interact with a farmer through policy briefs. In general, I would list three main ‘pillars’ that can be considered when dealing with complex scientific information:

Simplify the language and avoid scientific jargon (i.e. by using short sentences with a clear structure)
Always leverage visual aids, such as infographics, animations, videos or graphical abstracts
Try to present the information in a narrative-like form – start with the background and problem, and then explain the solutions you are offering.

By adhering to these simple steps, I believe most challenging scientific concepts can be easily translated into an understandable format for laypersons or other stakeholder groups!

Which indicators do you consider crucial when assessing the success of a science communication campaign?

In my view, the success of any science communication campaign should be measured beyond quantitative indicators. Sure, audience reach, number of impressions and demographic data are important, but real success should be assessed through active engagement (i.e. comments or questions towards the topic, participation in events or activities, feedback and criticism from evaluation surveys, etc). I believe that monitoring these qualitative indicators on an ongoing basis is instrumental for a long-term awareness and understanding of a given topic over time.

What has made Pensoft unique and effective in the field of science communication?

I honestly believe the driving force behind Pensoft’s success in science communication is the motivated team behind it – it has demonstrated that an openness to engage, combined with an urge to learn and expand your horizons, is ultimately the making of a successful science communicator. In addition to being curious and forthcoming, an environmental conscience is another fundamental characteristic of Pensoft which surely resonates with all of its members!

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Explore past and present research projects in Pensoft’s communication portfolio.

Inspiring a new generation of taxonomists

New species of Australian miracine wasps described with school students as part of the Insect investigators citizen science project

Guest blog post by Mollie Slater-Baker

It is estimated that only around 20% of the world’s insects are formally described. A formal description is the foundational understanding of a species, including a scientific name, information on how to identify the species, its biology, and where it can be found. With such a large proportion of our insects lacking this foundational information, we are left viewing the insect world through a very small window. This has major implications for conservation of insects and the ecosystems in which they play integral roles. It also limits our understanding of our natural resources, with the study of insects being valuable in a variety of fields, from healthcare and biochemistry, to biological pest control, to insect-inspired engineering.

Unfortunately, with a worldwide lack of taxonomic experts, limited funding, and the immense scale of describing the world’s insects, documenting our insect diversity before it’s lost to extinction is a considerable challenge. But this is where community engagement and citizen science can shine.

Experts in insect taxonomy “threatened by extinction” reveals the first European Red List of Taxonomists

The Insect Investigators citizen science project, which ran in Australia in 2022, aimed to involve schools throughout the taxonomic process, to contribute to large-scale collection and documentation of Australian insects, while fostering an appreciation for insect diversity and the role of taxonomy. Fifty rural schools from Queensland, South Australia, and Western Australia participated by setting up Malaise traps (tent-like passive insect traps) to sample local invertebrates near their schools over four weeks. This project resulted in over 60 thousand insect specimens being collected from often under-sampled, more remote parts of Australia. The resulting specimens are preserved and deposited in Australian museums for future research, including taxonomic work.

Malaise traps set up at Kwoorabup Nature School (left) and Beerwah State High School (right) to sample insects as part of the Insect Investigators project.

Through this project, several schools were involved in collecting a rarely collected group of parasitoid wasps belonging to the subfamily Miracinae (aka miracine wasps). These tiny wasps (typically 1-2mm in length) are very difficult to collect using traditional methods, though they appear to be quite diverse in Australia. As parasitoids, miracine wasps require an invertebrate host to complete their lifecycle. For miracine wasps, this host is a leaf-mining caterpillar – the kind that eats small twisting tunnels on the inside of leaves. The wasps lay their eggs inside these caterpillars, and the wasp larvae hatch and eat the caterpillar from the inside out!

‘Insect soup’ – specimens collected via Malaise Trap at Kwoorabup Nature School.

Due to their caterpillar-eating biology, and the fact that they are picky eaters, usually targeting a specific species, these wasps can be used to control pests. For example, the miracine wasp species Mirax insularis in Puerto Rico, and Centistidea striata in Brazil, are known to attack coffee leaf-miners, a major pest of coffee plantations – so you may have one of these wasps to thank for your morning coffee!

As part of this project, we engaged with schools to involve them throughout the process of describing the miracine wasps they had collected. First, we ran in-person and online or hybrid workshops with the students to teach them about the new wasp they had discovered, and the taxonomic process involved in describing and naming it. The students then brainstormed a variety of creative names for the new species, which were collaboratively curated and voted upon to arrive at the final species names.

From Queensland, we have Mirax supremus, meaning ‘highest’ in Latin, named after the Pinnacle program at Beerwah State High School, which the students were a part of.

From South Australia, comes Ceduna Area School’s species, Mirax ceduna, named after the school and town the wasp was collected from (colloquially known as the ‘golden bum wasp’).

And from Kwoorabup Nature School in Western Australia (WA), Mirax kaatijan, meaning knowledge/learning in the Noongar language of the south-west region of WA, to represent the new knowledge the students had learnt about insect diversity, and the importance of knowledge about our insects.

Though the descriptions themselves are a small step towards the immense task of describing Australia’s insects, it was inspiring to see the students and their communities really engage with the process and build a connection with their local insects, and an appreciation for these tiny, often-overlooked wasps. We hope this project plays a role in inspiring the next generation of budding entomologists and taxonomists in Australia.

References

1. Stork, N.E., How Many Species of Insects and Other Terrestrial Arthropods Are There on Earth? Annual Review of Entomology, 2018. 63(1): p. 31-45.

2. Song, C., et al., Bee Sting-Inspired Inflammation-Responsive Microneedles for Periodontal Disease Treatment. Research (Wash D C), 2023. 6: p. 0119.

3. Mika, N., H. Zorn, and M. Rühl, Insect-derived enzymes: a treasure for industrial biotechnology and food biotechnology. Adv Biochem Eng Biotechnol, 2013. 136: p. 1-17.

4. Galli, M., et al., Can biocontrol be the game-changer in integrated pest management? A review of definitions, methods and strategies. Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection, 2024. 131(2): p. 265-291.

5. Gorb, S.N. and E.V. Gorb, Insect-inspired architecture to build sustainable cities. Current Opinion in Insect Science, 2020. 40: p. 62-70.

6. Zhang, Y., A. Reid, and J.F.C. Windmill, Insect-inspired acoustic micro-sensors. Current Opinion in Insect Science, 2018. 30: p. 33-38.

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Pensoft joins the FORSAID project in the next chapter for forest health

With its extensive experience in science communication and dissemination, Pensoft will help maximise FORSAID’s impact and ensure its long-term legacy.

As the dedicated communication partner of the project, Pensoft will lead efforts to popularise a new early detection paradigm targeting forest pests in Europe

The issue of pest proliferation is felt more acutely than ever in the wake of globalisation and climate change. As pests and pathogens spread across biomes, the threat to forests and the health of the plants within is only increasing. Cognisant of this worrying trend, the European Union has actively pursued mitigation and prevention measures over the last few years. Grassroots efforts are also on the rise as insights from academia and citizen science alike improve monitoring capabilities on the ground.

To address the core of the problem in its entirety, greater coordination and innovation across the board are required.

It is with this tenet in mind that FORSAID: FORest Surveillance with Artificial Intelligence and Digital Technologies – first emerged on the scene as a Horizon Europе-funded project.

The goal of FORSAID is the inception and deployment of a technology-based early detection system for EU-regulated forest pests.

The pursuit of that very goal brought together 17 partner organisations from 10 countries. FORSAID is funded by the European Union’s Horizon Europe research and innovation programme. Having officially started in September 2024, it is set to continue until February 2028.

Within the team, Pensoft has taken the lead in the domains of Communication, Dissemination and Exploitation. Its long-standing expertise vis-a-vis public campaigns for science initiatives will be harnessed in an attempt to show the benefits and solutions that the latest digital innovations can bring to plant health monitoring. Thus, Pensoft is to help maximise FORSAID’s impact and ensure its long-term legacy.

The project will be presented across the public domain by following a tailored communication plan. Examples of its implementation include social media campaigns, regular updates of a dedicated FORSAID website and synergies with various stakeholder groups.

Foresight in FORSAID

The project consortium firmly believes that digital innovation is the key to a truly effective pest detection framework. This signifies the central role of technology at all stages of this paradigm’s development process.

More specifically, the employment of digital tools will proceed on several levels:

Satellite and drone surveillance will be employed to remotely map out forested areas of interest and assess the extent of plant damage caused by pests and pathogens.
Smart traps and DNA barcoding will serve to identify and sort out different species of pests.
Artificial intelligence (AI) models will assist throughout this process as it helps to automate the procedure, thereby increasing efficiency.

Building on the technology-based research and experimentation, insights from a variety of stakeholders will also be gathered to crystalise FORSAID’s approach.

The consortium’s intent here is the consolidation of a network of interested and involved actors who would ensure the long-term application of the project’s results. A special focus is also placed on citizen scientists, whose practical needs will be considered in the design of the digital tools developed within FORSAID. Finally, a detailed economic analysis will assess the early detection framework and its associated technological instruments, in order to ensure its usability in the long run.

The FORSAID project consortium at the project’s kick-off meeting held on 26 September 2024 in Padua, Italy.

Full list of project partners:

The University of Padua (Italy)
The National Research Council of Italy (Italy)
EFOS Information Solutions D.O.O. (Slovenia)
European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organisation (international)
European Institute of Planted Forest (international)
National Institute of Agricultural and Veterinary Research – INRAE (France)
National Research Institute for Agriculture, Food and Environment (Portugal)
Forest Research Centre (Portugal)
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (Germany)
Linnaeus University (Sweden)
Museum für Naturkunde – Leibniz Institute for Evolutionand Biodiversity Science (Germany)
Pensoft Publishers (Bulgaria)
Slovenian Forestry Institute (Slovenia)
Telespazio France SAS (France)
University of Copenhagen (Denmark)
Ukrainian National Forestry University (Ukraine)
Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSL (Switzerland)

You can follow the project’s progress and achievements on the dedicated LinkedIn and BlueSky pages and FORSAID’S brand new official website.