Vibrant, tiny, and sporting a bright red grin on its back, the Happy-Face spider is one of the most famous and recognisable arachnids in the world. For over a century, this cheerful-looking creature was thought to be a unique resident of the Hawaiian Islands, a biological curiosity found nowhere else on Earth.
Mature male (left) and female (right) of Theridion himalayana sp. nov. Photo credit: Devi Priyadarshini and Ashirwad Tripathy.
“The discovery was accidental because our survey was [originally] on ants. But my co-author [Ashirwad Tripathy] kept sending me spiders from high altitude regions for identification.
So, one fine day, when he shared this image from the underside of a Daphniphyllum leaf, I froze in shock because I had seen the Hawaiian spider during my master’s programme itself, and I knew instantly we had a jackpot because of its striking resemblance.
I asked him to send all morphs that he found, and that led to the discovery in the next few months, from October 2023 onwards.”
Devi Priyadarshini, Regional Museum of Natural History, Bhubaneswar
Priyadarshini added that she was always interested in exploring high-altitude spiders because the landscape and vegetation are so different there than in the plains:
“This almost came across as a gateway to look at other polymorphic species from this region.”
Ashirwad also said that we could find more variations in the species if the surveys could be done extensively.
Nest architecture of Theridion himalayana. Photo credit: Devi Priyadarshini and Ashirwad Tripathy.
The species name, himalayana, serves as a tribute to the mountain range where the spider was found at elevations of over 2,000 meters above sea level.
“The name Himalayana was decided as the species name because we both wanted to pay our respects to the mighty Himalaya mountain ranges, which have been standing tall not just guarding our country but also holding a plethora of biodiversity within them.
Since this spider was the first polymorphic from this region, we decided to make it an ode to the amazing mountain ranges.”
Ashirwad Tripathy, Forest Research Institute, Dehradun
The research, published in the open-access journal Evolutionary Systematics, identified 32 different colour variations, or “morphs”, of the species collected from three locations in Uttarakhand: Makku, Tala, and Mandal. DNA analysis revealed a genetic variation of approximately 8.5% from the Hawaiian happy-face spider, confirming it as a separate lineage that evolved independently in Asia.
Different “morphs” of Theridion himalayana sp. nov. Photo credit: Devi Priyadarshini and Ashirwad Tripathy.
While the smiling patterns are striking, their exact purpose remains a mystery.
“The reason behind the expression of polymorphism is also very complex and unique.
These patterns definitely help them survive better in the wild, which is understood prima facie, but why do they resort to such patterns on their back, and what functional role in their life cycle does it exactly serve is yet to be deciphered. This is definitely indicative of a deeper genetic mystery.”
Priyadarshini
Ashirwad also mentioned that the spider species was surrounded by critters which had similar colour patterns on their body.
Subadult female with Psocid (booklice) prey. Photo credit: Devi Priyadarshini and Ashirwad Tripathy.
The study additionally noted that these spiders are frequently found on ginger plants (Hedychium species), mirroring the behaviour of their Hawaiian cousins. Since ginger is not native to Hawaii, the researchers are intrigued by the evolutionary connection.
“How did the spiders choose an invasive species and ginger exactly? If T. himalayana is an elder cousin of T. grallator, although discovered 125 years later!
Although this sounds like a tall claim now, it will be our further scope of work to establish any missing links, if at all, through Hedychium sps.”
Priyadarshini
Showing the prey of T.himalayana sp. nov. Video credit: Devi Priyadarshini and Ashirwad Tripathy.
Original source:
Tripathy A, Priyadarshini D (2026) On the discovery of a new polymorphic Happy-Face Spider (Araneae, Theridiidae) from the Western Himalayas, India, with notes on its natural history. Evolutionary Systematics 10(1): 63-84. https://doi.org/10.3897/evolsyst.10.174338
A global analysis of more than 12,000 bird and mammal species reveals that ecosystems do not share energy evenly across body sizes and human activities influence this.
A global analysis of more than 12,000 bird and mammal species reveals that ecosystems do not share energy evenly across body sizes. Small species dominate in numbers, but in high-productivity regions their abundance is spread so thinly across many species that larger animals end up capturing more energy per species. Human activity compounds these patterns by selectively eroding large-bodied diversity.
How does an ecosystem distribute its energy across body sizes? A new study suggests the answer depends on where you are – and how much humans have altered the landscape. Analysing communities of birds and mammals worldwide, researchers show that larger-bodied species can, on average, capture more energy per species than smaller ones, particularly in highly productive environments. The work also reveals that human impacts restructure these patterns by disproportionately removing large-bodied species from local communities.
Why body size matters for how ecosystems share energy
Workflow diagram to predict the individual density per km2 of mammal and bird species across a one-degree cell grid globally. A. Global density of data points of empirical estimates of species abundance used for model training; B. Example of 80% training and 20% testing blocks used per fold in our modelling framework; C. Global maps showing the sum of predicted abundance per km2 of all species across one-degree cells; D. Global estimations of species body mass-abundance relationships (MAR-SPP), individual mass distributions (IMD) and richness mass distributions (RMD). Credit to Camacho & Araújo, 2026.
Ecologists have long observed that larger species tend to have smaller populations: a bigger body requires more energy to sustain, so fewer individuals can be supported. A slope of −0.75 in the log–log relationship between body mass and abundance has been proposed as a null expectation – the point at which every species, regardless of size, commands an equal share of ecosystem energy. Yet testing this idea globally has been difficult because abundance data are patchy across regions and taxa.
This study tackles that limitation head-on. By combining large global datasets of abundance and distributions of species, the authors model local populations of birds and mammals across the planet and ask: is ecosystem energy concentrated in a few large organisms, or dispersed among many small ones – and how does that change from place to place?
What the team did
Using extensive abundance datasets and species trait information, the authors modelled population densities (individuals per km²) for 12,057 terrestrial bird and mammal species on a global grid at one-degree resolution. This enabled them to reconstruct community structure across environments and to examine three complementary signatures of how body size relates to energy and diversity within communities: the body mass–abundance relationship across species (how abundance declines with body size), the individual mass distribution (how individuals are distributed across body sizes regardless of species identity), and the richness mass distribution (how species richness is distributed across body sizes). They then related these patterns to two major global drivers: ecosystem productivity (net primary productivity) and human pressure (human footprint index).
Key findings
Relationship between species body mass and abundance (dark blue), individual mass distribution (light blue) and species-richness mass distribution (orange) in communities across one-degree cells as a function of global gradients of net primary productivity (NPP) (A, C) and human footprint (B, C). MAR-SPP, IMD and RMD slopes represent the exponent in power law relationships. Panel A shows the NPP effect on MAR-SPP, IMD and RMD values adjusted for human footprint and panel B shows the human-footprint effect adjusted for NPP. In A and B, the graph uses a boxplot format where the white central section represents the interquartile range between 25% and 75%, the central line denotes the median and the shaded areas indicate the whiskers. Outliers are omitted for clarity. The dashed line depicts a reference of slope = -0.75. Boxplots were calculated in intervals of 0.001 for NPP and every unit of human footprint raised to the 1/4 power. Lines were smoothed with a loess regression with a 0.06 span (α). The boxplots were drawn from the mean value per one-degree cell across 10 global datasets. In A and B, thicker lines represent the mean slopes of 10,000 general linear model (GLM) iterations (1000 iterations on 10 data sets), based on random samples of 20 one-degree cells. In C, GLM slopes are shown across the combined effects of NPP and human footprint. GLM slopes (thick lines in A and B and coloured areas in C) appear to depict non-linear relationships because of back-transformation of NPP and human footprint, which were squared-root and fourth-root transformed for GLM. Credit to
1. Productive ecosystems tilt energy capture towards larger species.
As productivity increases, the study finds that small-bodied species become more diverse without a matching rise in total abundance. Individuals are effectively “spread thinner” across more small-bodied species, reducing the average energy share per small-bodied species. Meanwhile, large-bodied species – fewer in number but less diluted by richness – end up capturing more energy on average. The body mass-abundance slope ranged from approximately −0.69 in the least productive environments to −0.35 in the most productive, consistently shallower than the −0.75 null expectation.
2. Human pressure reshapes community organisation, with lasting consequences.
Human activity produces a shift in these relationships that resembles – but is mechanistically distinct from – the productivity effect. Human impact operates primarily by reducing both the abundance and, more strongly, the species richness of large organisms. This likely reflects the well-documented disproportionate extirpation of large-bodied species by human activities, leaving a persistent imprint on how energy and diversity are distributed across body sizes.
3. Energy distribution and ecological opportunity vary independently.
Across the globe, patterns of energy flow across body sizes and the opportunities for diversification (how many species exist at each body size) can decouple. Interestingly, the distribution of species richness across body sizes was more stable across environments than the distribution of energy – yet it had a stronger influence on the body mass–abundance relationship. This helps explain why simple, one-size-fits-all expectations about body size and abundance often fail at large scales.
Why it matters
The authors argue that body mass–abundance–richness relationships can serve as a functional metric of ecological change – capturing not just how many species are present, but how ecosystems allocate individuals and energy across body sizes. This matters for biodiversity assessments because losing large-bodied diversity can reorganise ecosystems in ways that species counts alone cannot reveal. Specifically, these patterns may help improve biodiversity offset strategies and address the risk of underestimating the ecological importance of large-bodied species.
Small-bodied animals still dominate numerically, but in productive ecosystems they are divided among many more species. That dilution changes the per-species share of individuals and, by extension, energy.
Luis F. Camacho, first author
Human pressure does not just remove species; it reshapes the functional organisation of communities. Looking at body size, abundance, and richness together reveals structural changes that standard indicators miss.
Miguel B. Araújo, senior author
Original source:
Camacho LF, Araújo MB (2026) Body mass–abundance relationships reveal uneven global energy distribution across body size classes in vertebrates. Frontiers of Biogeography 19: e164408. https://doi.org/10.21425/fob.19.164408
Imagine living in a world where your home can disappear overnight.
For many tiny arthropods, such as pseudoscorpions, this is a reality. They inhabit ephemeral and unpredictable habitats – decaying organic matter, animal nests, or tree hollows – that can quickly vanish or become unsuitable. Without wings, escaping these disappearing habitats poses a serious challenge.
So how do they cope?
The answer lies in a fascinating strategy known as phoresy: hitchhiking on other, more mobile organisms. In the case of pseudoscorpions, these carriers are often flies.
Flies (Diptera) are particularly suitable transport hosts. They are highly mobile, capable of long-distance flight, and frequently visit the same types of transient habitats that pseudoscorpions depend on. By attaching themselves to a fly, pseudoscorpions can effectively outsource dispersal – reaching new habitats they could never access on their own.
Despite its importance, the relationship between pseudoscorpions and flies has remained largely underexplored. Comprehensive syntheses are more than two decades old, and much of the available knowledge has been scattered across individual studies, often published in different languages and difficult to access.
What began as a marginal aspect of our research gradually turned into a much greater effort. As we followed scattered records across the literature, it became clear that no up-to-date overview existed. This led us to examine hundreds of publications from different countries and time periods, critically reassessing old records while adding new data from our own material.
Altogether, we compiled 172 records spanning more than 250 years, from 1761 to 2025 – providing the most comprehensive overview of pseudoscorpion – Diptera phoresy to date now published in the open-access journal ZooKeys.
New records of pseudoscorpion phoresy in Europe. Locality codes are given in Materials and methods. Country abbreviations: CZ – Czechia, FR – France, SI – Slovenia, SK – Slovakia. Image credit: Jana Christophoryová et al.
Our results show that pseudoscorpions have been recorded hitchhiking on at least 74 species of flies across 30 families, while the number of known pseudoscorpion travellers reaches 39 species from seven families. Several new host associations were identified, including seven fly species and three fly families not previously known to serve as carriers. We also documented 11 new cases of phoresy from Europe, including first national records for some species.
Cases of phoresy from Czechia, Slovakia, and Slovenia. A. Ceroxysurticae and Lamprochernes cf. chyzeri (locality 1); B. Pherbelliaannulipes and Pselaphochernesscorpioides (locality 6); C. Fanniacanicularis and P.scorpioides (locality 7); D. Xylophagusater and Chernescimicoides (locality 8); E. Muscaautumnalis and L. cf. chyzeri (locality 9); F. Lonchaeachorea and L. cf. chyzeri (locality 10); G, H. Limonianubeculosa and P.scorpioides (locality 11). Image credit: Jana Christophoryová et al.
Interestingly, most records are linked to a single, familiar species – the house fly (Musca domestica). However, this pattern is likely influenced by historical research bias, as earlier studies focused heavily on this easily observable association. This highlights an important challenge: understanding phoresy requires not only new data, but also careful re-evaluation of past identifications.
Beyond modern observations, fossil evidence preserved in amber reveals that these interactions are far from recent. Pseudoscorpions were already hitchhiking on flies tens of millions of years ago, indicating that this dispersal strategy has deep evolutionary roots.
Cases of phoresy from France. A, B. Scatopsenotata and Pselaphochernesscorpioides (locality 2); C, D. Physiphora sp. and Lamprochernesnodosus (locality 3); E, F. Neolimoniadumetorum and P.scorpioides (locality 4); G, H. Tipulavernalis and Dactylocheliferdegeerii (locality 5). Image credit: Jana Christophoryová et al.
Taken together, our findings show that phoresy is not just an occasional curiosity, but a widespread and long-standing ecological strategy. It allows these tiny, wingless predators to navigate a fragmented and ever-changing world – by quite literally catching a ride.
Original source:
Christophoryová J, Mathy V, Hörweg C, Vičanová L (2026) Hitchhiking across continents: phoresy of pseudoscorpions (Arachnida, Pseudoscorpiones) on Diptera, with new European records. ZooKeys 1276: 213-248. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.1276.188186
For more articles on zoology, visit the ZooKeys website and follow the journal on BlueSky and Facebook.
May 7th marks Deep Day, a global day of awareness and action dedicated to the deep sea. Founded by the Deep Sea Conservation Coalition, it aims to raise awareness of the deep sea’s immense ecological importance and call for its protection against threats like deep-sea mining and destructive fishing.
To celebrate the wonders of our oceans and raise awareness of the incredible biodiversity of the deep sea, we at Pensoft Publishers would like to highlight some of the remarkable marine studies that have recently been published in our scientific journals.
A Global Collaboration to Uncover Deep-Sea Amphipods
The 24 newly described deep-sea amphipod species. Image credit to: Eleanor Frost, National Oceanography Centre
Demonstrating the power of global teamwork, an international group of experts recently discovered 24 new deep-sea amphipod species in the central Pacific Ocean’s Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ). Researchers from institutions worldwide, including the University of Lodz and the National Oceanography Centre, came together for a coordinated taxonomy workshop to achieve this. Their work revealed a completely new evolutionary branch with the discovery of a new superfamily, Mirabestioidea.
Crucially, their findings form part of the International Seabed Authority’s Sustainable Seabed Knowledge Initiative (SSKI) and its ‘One Thousand Reasons’ project, which aims to formally describe 1,000 new species by the end of the decade.
Highlighting the importance of this joint effort, Dr. Anna Jażdżewska from the University of Lodz shared:
This was a truly collaborative process that allowed us to achieve the ambitious goal of describing more than 20 species new to science within a year – something that would not have been possible if each of us worked independently. The team’s findings provide information that is crucial for future conservation and policy decisions.
😯Fascinating new #study recorded 108 morphotaxa from 4,500m down to the #hadal depths of 9,775m, revealing the hidden life of the NW Pacific trenches. 🎥They analyzed 460 hours of video from landers & submersibles across the Japan, Ryukyu, and Izu-Ogasawara trenches. 👇Full study here: https://doi.org/10.3897 /BDJ.14.e182172 📗You can read all about it on Pensoft’s blog 👇 https://blog.pensoft.net/2026/04/06/what-lives-10-km-below-the-surface-a-new-look-at-life-in-japans-deepest-ocean-trenches/ Research center: Minderoo-UWA Deep-Sea Research Centre. Main funders of the expedition: Inkfish, Caladan Oceanic #deepsea#sciencetok#research
Photo and video credit to Minderoo-UWA Deep-Sea Research Centre, Inkfish, Caladan Oceanic, Jamieson et al., 2026
Another recent expedition provided a profound look at life up to nearly 10 kilometers below the surface in the Japan, Ryukyu, and Izu-Ogasawara trenches, cataloging at least 108 distinct organism groups. The research captured rare footage of species interactions at extreme depths – and one baffling, unidentified animal that has left taxonomists worldwide perplexed.
The unknown organism or Animalia incerta sedis. Credit to Jamieson et al., 2026, o Minderoo-UWA Deep-Sea Research Centre, Inkfish and Caladan Oceanic.
Rather than using traditional trawls that can damage fragile organisms, the team utilized crewed submersibles and free-fall baited landers. Explaining the value of this non-destructive method, the research team noted:
This combination enabled us to build the most comprehensive visual baseline yet for abyssal and hadal megafauna in the Northwest Pacific to date.
They added that the study aims to establish a foundation for the future, emphasizing that:
More than anything, the hadal zone remains one of Earth’s least-explored and most intriguing frontiers.
Learn more: Jamieson AJ, Swanborn DJB, Bond T, Cundy MC, Fujiwara Y, Lindsay D, Stott MS, Kitazato H (2026) Faunal biodiversity of the lower abyssal and hadal zones of the Japan, Ryukyu and Izu-Ogasawara trenches (NW Pacific Ocean; 4534-9775 m). Biodiversity Data Journal 14: e182172. https://doi.org/10.3897/BDJ.14.e182172
Finally, highlighting a unique way the public can engage with science and taxonomy, a recently found deep-sea chiton was named by the internet after science YouTuber Ze Frank featured it in an episode of his “True Facts” series. Originally discovered in 2024 within the Izu-Ogasawara Trench at a depth of 5,500 meters, this new species belongs to the genus Ferreiraella, a rare and specialized group of mollusks that live exclusively on sunken wood in the deep sea.
From over 8,000 suggestions submitted across social media, the research team selected the name Ferreiraella populi. The epithet populi is a Latin singular noun in the genitive case meaning “of the people”.
Prof. Dr. Julia Sigwart, co-chair of the Senckenberg Ocean Species Alliance (SOSA), emphasized the broader significance of this public discovery:
Ferreiraella populi exemplifies the overwhelming biodiversity of the oceans, the vast majority of which remains unexplored. Many species go extinct before we even know they exist – this is especially true for marine invertebrates.
Learn more: (SOSA) SOSA, Chen C, Frank H, Kraniotis L, Nakadera Y, Schwabe E, Sigwart JD, Trautwein B, Vončina K (2026) Ocean Species Discoveries 28–30 — new species of chitons (Mollusca, Polyplacophora) and a public naming competition. Biodiversity Data Journal 14: e180491. https://doi.org/10.3897/BDJ.14.e180491
These studies highlight the vastness of the unexplored frontier that our deep seas and oceans offer. Revealing this hidden life – from entirely new evolutionary branches of amphipods to records of unknown organisms – requires global collaboration, cutting-edge exploration technologies, and the involvement of the general public.
Ultimately, this shared pursuit of discovery provides the fundamental knowledge crucial for conservation and policy decisions. As Deep Day reminds us of the encroaching threats from deep-sea mining, human-derived debris, and destructive fishing, we must work together to understand these fragile habitats so that we can effectively protect them and #DefendtheDeep.
Distinguished by its striking colors and a name that carries the weight of a high ecclesiastical office, a new species of moth has been discovered in the rugged terrain of Greece. When researchers from the Tyrolean State Museum, the Finnish Museum of Natural History and the Bavarian State Collection of Zoology identified this unique insect in the White Mountains of Crete, they chose a name that reflects both its noble appearance and a message of environmental hope: Pyralis papaleonei – derived from “Papa Leone” (Pope Leo).
The discovery, published in the open-access journal Nota Lepidopterologica on 28 April 2026, highlights that even among such conspicuous European moths, overlooked species remain to be discovered. The new species is currently only known from the White Mountains (Lefka Ori) in the western part of Crete, where it appears to be an endemic treasure of the island.
Type-locality of Pyralis papaleonei sp. nov. (Greece, Crete, Omalos plateau). Image credit: Peter Huemer.
Striking purple forewings
The so-called Pope Leo Moth has a wingspan of around two centimeters, placing it among the medium-sized representatives of its group. Its most distinctive features are its purple forewings with an orange-golden patch and prominent white bands. The moths were recorded at artificial light sources and appear to be mainly active in June. So far, little is known about the biology and lifestyle of the new species. It was distinguished from related species based on classical morphological characteristics – such as wing pattern, coloration, and genital morphology – as well as genetic fingerprinting. Molecular analyses revealed a divergence of around six percent from its closest relative, clearly indicating that it represents a distinct species.
Pyralis papaleonei sp. nov., holotype. Image credit: Peter Huemer.
A tradition of remarkable species names
Butterflies and moths are often named after physical characteristics, geographic origins, or in honor of distinguished individuals. Within the genus Pyralis, however, a particular tradition can be observed: as early as 1775, Austrian naturalists Michael Denis and Ignaz Schiffermüller described the first species of the group as Pyralis regalis (“royal”), inspired by its splendid coloration. This was followed by sonorous names such as Pyralis princeps and Pyralis cardinalis, also referring to the remarkable beauty of these moths.
All these species belong to the diverse superfamily Pyraloidea, which comprises around 16,000 described species worldwide and represents one of the largest groups among micro-moths.
Specimen of Pyralis regalis. Image credit: Peter Huemer.
Taxonomy as the “first profession” of humankind
The naming of living organisms also has a cultural-historical dimension: in the Old Testament (Genesis 2), Adam is firstly tasked with naming all animals. In this sense, taxonomy – the science of classifying, naming, and organising organisms – can be regarded as one of humanity’s earliest endeavors.
For study leader Peter Huemer of the Tyrolean State Museum Ferdinandeum, naming a species is therefore more than a formal scientific act: it also serves as a symbolic appeal to the head of the Catholic Church, Pope Leo XIV, to highlight humanity’s central responsibility in safeguarding creation. This is particularly fitting as butterflies and moths are regarded in Christianity as symbols of resurrection, transformation (metamorphosis), and the immortal soul.
Specimens of Pyralis papaleonei. Image credit: Peter Huemer.
Only a fraction of global biodiversity documented
Peter Huemer, former head of the Natural Science Collections at the Tyrolean State Museums and now a volunteer researcher, explains:
“We are facing a global biodiversity crisis, yet only a fraction of the world’s species has been scientifically documented. Effective conservation of biodiversity requires that species are first recognised, described, and named.”
Around 700 new moth species are described each year, primarily in the tropics. However, fundamental research in Europe is far from complete: in the Alps alone, approximately 200 previously unknown species have been identified in recent decades.
With their internationally significant scientific collections, the Tyrolean State Museums make an important contribution to this work. The discovery of the Pope Leo Moth, Pyralis papaleonei, highlights how much remains to be discovered even in well-studied regions of Europe—and underscores the urgent need to protect sensitive habitats.
Over the past two decades, environmental DNA (eDNA) analysis has become a crucial tool for monitoring aquatic ecosystems. The most common method, metabarcoding, relies on PCR amplification of a smaller genetic region to identify specific taxa. However, PCR can lead to “significant taxonomic bias” because it often amplifies the DNA of different organisms unequally, making quantitative estimates difficult.
To avoid this, scientists have increasingly explored “shotgun sequencing“- an approach that sequences the DNA in a sample much more broadly – across the entire tree of life and across the genome. Unfortunately, in marine environments, shotgun sequencingis typically overwhelmed by microbial DNA, burying the genetic traces of less abundant macro-organisms such as animals.
Bigger Pores, Better Animal DNA Capture?
In a new study published in Metabarcoding and Metagenomics, researchers investigated if they could capture a higher proportion of eukaryotic (animal and plant) DNA simply by using filters with larger pore sizes.
Filter pore sizes are expected to influence results, since eDNA may be present in many different states, including but not limited to complete organisms, sloughed tissue, feces, free DNA, or gametes.
commented Dr. Adrián Gómez-Repollés, the lead author of the study.
To test this, the team collected 15 seawater samples from Skovshoved Harbour in Denmark and filtered them using pore sizes ranging from 0.2 µm to 8.0 µm. The results showed a stark contrast in the type of DNA captured based on the filter size.
Filters with smaller pore sizes (0.2 µm and 1.2 µm) retained a significantly greater proportion of bacterial reads than eukaryotic reads (63% vs. 28%); conversely, filters with larger pore sizes (5.0 µm and 8.0 µm) retained a significantly greater proportion of eukaryotic reads than bacterial reads (49% vs. 31%).
By switching to 5.0 µm or 8.0 µm filters, the researchers successfully reduced the dominance of bacteria. Of the 19 metazoan (animal) phyla detected using shotgun sequencing, all but one were found to be more abundant when using the larger pore sizes.
Looking to the Future of Biomonitoring
Taxonomic comparison at the kingdom and phylum levels of eukaryotes detected with shotgun sequencing and metabarcoding. A. Number and relative abundance (percentages) of taxonomically classified reads after rarefaction per sample and kingdom for shotgun sequencing; B. Number and relative abundance of taxonomically classified reads after rarefaction per sample and kingdom for metabarcoding. For both heatmaps, sample replicates are ordered along the y-axis by increasing pore size, starting with the enclosed filter type (EN) and continuing with the open pore filter type (OP). Pore sizes are in µm; C. Cladogram of the full set of eukaryotic phyla identified by shotgun sequencing and metabarcoding. Branch colors represent kingdoms (blue, Metazoa; red, Fungi; green, Viridiplantae; pink, other eukaryotes). Three surrounding rings indicate phyla shared between shotgun sequencing and metabarcoding (gray), phyla uniquely detected with metabarcoding (yellow), and phyla uniquely detected with shotgun sequencing (blue). Information in the rings is summarized in a Venn diagram in the upper left corner. Taxa marked with an asterisk are no longer categorized as a phylum. Credit to Gómez-Repollés et al., 2026
When compared alongside traditional 18S rDNA metabarcoding, the shotgun sequencing method successfully shared 39 of the 54 detected eukaryotic phyla, indicating a similar performance in detecting the presence of high-level taxonomic groups.
To test the potential of shotgun sequencing in applied biomonitoring even further, the researchers examined the results at genus-level for a number of well known marine animals such as fish, mussels, crustaceans and bristle worms. Here, they found both DNA matches to native Danish species but also to exotic taxa that were highly unlikely and probably due to the low level of resolution in shotgun sequencing, where genetic regions of low variation and coverage are sequenced.
Water sample collection. Photo by David Stanciu.
But, when they looked further into the results they observed that the local taxa consistently comprised a higher number of reads. The number of reads could thus be a simple way to initially separate authentic taxa from erroneous matches in eDNA studies based on shotgun sequencing, although the approach needs further testing.
However, the authors note current limitations with the technology, primarily driven by incomplete public DNA reference databases. In the study, only 0.78% of the total shotgun reads could be definitively assigned to a superkingdom level. Another drawback was the lack of field controls to rule out cross-contamination or input from airborne DNA, coupled with a limited spatiotemporal design involving only a single sampling location.
Despite these hurdles, shotgun sequencing and filters with larger pore sizes could potentially be a significant step forward for eDNA in marine biology. As global genomic databases continue to expand, “the taxonomic coverage and resolution of shotgun sequencing should improve, likely enhancing the potential of shotgun sequencing for future eDNA research“, says Philip Francis Thomsen, professor and senior author on the study.
Original study:
Gómez-Repollés A, Sigsgaard EE, Jensen MR, Thomsen PF (2026) Filter pore size influences taxonomic composition of retained eDNA from seawater samples—evidence from shotgun sequencing. Metabarcoding and Metagenomics 10: e164232. https://doi.org/10.3897/mbmg.10.164232
What do brain morphology and sensory structures tell us about the evolutionary adaptations between catfish that live on the surface and those that live in caves?
Cave fauna fascinates young and old alike. Deep within the karst systems of Chapada Diamantina, Brazil, lives one of the world’s most diverse groups of cave-dwelling fish.
In fact, Brazilian cavefishes are the richest troglobitic (cave-dwelling) ichthyofauna worldwide, boasting 13 different genera. While the surface world is teeming with life, the subterranean realm, or the hypogean habitat, demands a very specific set of skills to survive.
The research, conducted by Thalia Rodovanski (from the Departamento de Biologia, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, Brazil) and her team, was published in Subterranean Biologyand took a closer look at the Copionodontinae, a subfamily of primitive catfishes.
Shallow water pool in Igatu. Photo credit to Maria Elina Bichuette.
Building on previous findings regarding the aggressive (agonistic) nature of Copionodontinae species, the researchers used this behavioral foundation to investigate how their physical and sensory structures have evolved in response to their environment.
By comparing surface-dwelling (epigean) species such as Copionodon pecten, C. lianae, and G. rodriguesi with their cave-bound cousin, Glaphyropoma spinosum, the researchers undertook the task of uncovering how these fish transitioned from the sunlit rivers to the pitch-black cave riverine systems.
Specifically, they did this by measuring the brain morphology and sensory structures such as barbels, eyes and counted pores of the lateral canal system on the head.
Shallow water pools in Igatu. Photo credit to Maria Elina Bichuette.
Researcher in a cave system in Igatu. Photo credit to Maria Elina Bichuette.
The curious findings
One of the most striking finds involved the genus Glaphyropoma. While the cave-dwelling G. spinosum shows classic troglomorphisms (adaptations for life in constant darkness), such as reduced eyes and a loss of skin pigment, the researchers found something surprising: even the surface-dwelling species in this group showed eye asymmetry and reduction.
Copionodon pecten. Photo credit to Maria Elina Bichuette.
Based on this, the researchers hypothesized that the asymmetry in the eyes is a plesiomorphic character (an ancestral trait) of the genus, rather than a feature developed in response to the specific habitat of each species. This pre-existing condition likely favored the colonization of hypogean (underground) habitats by G. spinosum.
In other words, Glaphyropoma already had a tendency toward reduced eyes. Instead of evolving small eyes because of the cave environment, they likely had them from the start. This is known as exaptation: a trait that originally evolved for one function (or no function at all) and was later co-opted for a new, different purpose, in this case, better suited for the dark.
Glaphyropoma spinosum. Photo credit to Adriano Gambarini.
As you can imagine, seeing in pitch black is quite hard. Therefore, these species had to rely on their other senses. The study found that the cave-dwelling G. spinosum has a longer telencephalon than its relatives. This is significant because it is the part of the brain responsible for navigating through chemical cues, creating mental maps (spatial memory), and participating in social interactions. Interestingly, the mesencephalon (the vision-processing center) hasn’t shrunk significantly yet, suggesting that these fish are still in the middle of their evolutionary transition.
The researchers concluded that while G. spinosum shows clear cave-specialized traits, many of these features are shared by its surface-dwelling cousins.
However, because of a lack of specimens of G. rodriguesi, the only known epigean species of the genus, which occurs sporadically in caves, it is not yet possible to definitively conclude if the sensory troglomorphisms detected in this study are related to taxonomic identity or the habitat itself.
Ultimately, such research is key to understanding more about the complex life of the highly specialized species that inhabit these fascinating environments.
Original source:
Rodovanski T, Bichuette ME, Cetra M, Mattox GMT (2026) The influence of subterranean habitats in the sensorial and brain morphology of hypogean and epigean Copionodontinae catfish (Siluriformes, Trichomycteridae). Subterranean Biology 55: 27-42. https://doi.org/10.3897/subtbiol.55.175751
Imagine a fly that decides flying is overrated. Instead, it finds a bat, sheds its wings, drops its legs, and burrows into the host’s skin for the rest of its days. This is the reality of the genus Ascodipteron, a group of highly specialised bat flies that challenge our basic definition of what an insect looks like.
In a recent study published in the open-access journal ZooKeys, researchers led by Haoran Sun of Beijing Forestry University have identified a new member of this strange family in the Yunnan Province of China. It brings some fascinating, if slightly macabre, biological quirks to the table.
The newly discovered species has been named Ascodipteron euryale and was found on the lesser brown horseshoe bat, known scientifically as Rhinolophus stheno. This discovery is particularly significant because it represents the first time a fly from this genus has been documented on this specific species of bat. These flies often show an incredibly narrow host range and a strict preference for where they live on the bat’s body. In the case of Ascodipteron euryale, they prefer the base of the bat’s ear, the tragus, or the ear pinna.
Ascodipteroneuryale sp. nov. and its host Rhinolophusstheno. (Image credit: Haoran Sun et al.).
The life of a female Ascodipteron fly is especially interesting. After a very brief period of seeking out a host, the female undergoes a radical transformation into what scientists call a neosome. It essentially becomes an endoparasite, embedded so deeply in the bat’s tissue that often only its posterior end is visible, protruding slightly so it can breathe and release larvae. This particular species was discovered in Xianren Cave, located in the Simao District of Pu’er City, at an elevation of 2428 meters above sea level.
Ascodipteroneuryale sp. nov., ex. R.stheno – the top two images display the whole neosome. (Image credit: Haoran Sun et al.).
What makes Ascodipteron euryale stand out from its 17 known cousins? The most defining physical trait is the shape of its mesosternum, a part of its underside, which features gently rounded lobes on the back corners. Further, unlike many related flies that are covered in soft skin and easily removed, these neosomes were found encased in a fibrous cyst or shell – this is a reaction from the host bat’s own immune system, creating a protective barrier that makes the parasite very difficult to extract.
Ascodipteroneuryale sp. nov., ex. R.stheno, head and thorax. (Image credit: Haoran Sun et al.).
The naming of the species is a clever nod to Greek mythology. The host bat, Rhinolophus stheno, shares a name with Stheno, one of the three Gorgon sisters who could turn onlookers to stone. The researchers decided to name the new fly euryale after Euryale, another of the Gorgon sisters. In the myths, these two sisters were immortal, and the authors note that this name choice reflects their hope that the deep-rooted biological association between this specific bat and its resident fly continues long into the future.
This research adds a sixth species of Ascodipteron to the records in China, emphasising the impressive biodiversity hidden within the country’s cave systems. It also raises new questions for future study, particularly regarding why some of these flies trigger the formation of fibrous shells while others do not. For now, Ascodipteron euryale remains a testament to the strange and highly specific ways life finds a niche (even if that niche is the inside of a bat’s ear)!
Original source:
Sun H, Ding L, Zhang D, Pape T (2026) Ascodipteron (Diptera, Nycteribiidae, streblid grade) from China: a new species from the lesser brown horseshoe bat, Rhinolophus stheno. ZooKeys 1273: 277-286. https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.1273.183551
A new study published in Nature Conservation shows that not all acoustic deterrent devices may be effective in protecting the Black Sea porpoise, Europe’s smallest marine mammal.
The endangered Black Sea harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena relicta) is facing a critical fight for survival. As Europe’s smallest marine mammal, this isolated population is being pushed toward extinction by bycatch – the unintentional entanglement in fishing gear. The crisis is most acute in the Black Sea turbot fishery, where recent estimates reveal that more than 10,000 porpoises die annually.
Led by a strong motivation to address threats to this iconic species, a team of Bulgarian researchers has carried out a four-year trial study of 57 hauls seeking effective solutions to reduce porpoise mortality. The study, now published in Nature Conservation, found bycatch in 61% of all hauls, accounting for 189 cetaceans: 182 harbour porpoises, five bottlenose dolphins, and two common dolphins.
Bycaught Black Sea harbour porpoises. Photo credit to Dimitar Popov.
The trials did not begin promisingly, as the first two models of acoustic deterrent devices (pingers) tested, proved ineffective at reducing bycatch.
the researchers noted
This initial setback prompted the team to search for an alternative solution, eventually leading to a breakthrough with the PAL Wideband pinger, an acoustic deterrent device developed in Germany.
PAL Wideband pinger attached to a fishing net. Photo credit to Dimitar Popov.
Field trials demonstrated that this device can reduce harbour porpoise bycatch in the Black Sea by approximately 74%. Researchers believe the specific acoustic signals, namely the wider frequency band (between 10 and 150 kHz) emitted by the PAL Wideband model, contributed to its effectiveness, as it was the only one of the three pingers tested, that successfully deterred porpoises from approaching fishing nets.
Map of the conducted trials involving PAL Wideband pingers in 2020 and 2021. Credit to Popov et al., 2026
“Other recent studies have highlighted significant shortcomings in the conservation of harbour porpoise populations in European waters,” the researchers stated. This underscores the urgent need for effective strategies to reduce bycatch, the leading human-induced cause of mortality for the species.
Mitigation measures could include spatio-temporal closures of high-risk fisheries in areas where harbour porpoises are most abundant, as well as the adoption of alternative or modified fishing gear, including the use of acoustic deterrent devices.
the experts noted
Bycaught Black Sea harbour porpoise. Photo credit to Dimitar Popov.
Among the available options, the use of effective pingers, supported by appropriate financing mechanisms, is increasingly seen as one of the most practical and widely accepted approaches to reducing bycatch while maintaining profitable fishing operations.
Not all acoustic deterrent devices are equally effective in reducing the bycatch of the harbour porpoise in the Black Sea.
the researchers concluded
Their findings demonstrate that certain pinger models fail to mitigate porpoise bycatch in the bottom-set gillnets specifically used to target turbot.
The study underscores the importance of careful selection and testing of deterrent devices and emphasizes that this distinction must be explicitly taken into account in the development of targeted and effective strategies to reduce bycatch in Black Sea fisheries.
If you are interested in other marine research from Bulgaria, take a look at the topical collection “Black Sea ecosystem in the spotlight” which includes this study.
Original source:
Popov D, Meshkova G, Dimitrov H, Panayotova M (2026) Can pingers mitigate the bycatch of the endangered Black Sea Harbour Porpoise? Nature Conservation 63: 1-15. https://doi.org/10.3897/natureconservation.63.183768
Deep within the humid leaf litter of China and the dense canopies of Brazil’s Atlantic Forest, a silent ambush unfolds.
While we often think of spiders as the ultimate predators of the undergrowth, they have an arch-nemesis: araneopathogenic fungi. These “zombie” fungi are capable of parasitising spiders by hijacking their bodies and consuming them from the inside out.
Two studies published in the open-access peer-reviewed scientific journals MycoKeys and IMA Fungus, respectively,offer insight into this macabre world of spider assassins.
In Southeast Asia, researchers led by Chen-xin Chang of the Guizhou University of Traditional Chinese Medicine have identified three new species of Gibellula fungi in China and Laos, which erupt from spiders in branch-like structures: Gibellula pseudopigmentosa, Gibellula pseudosolita, and Gibellula sinensis. These species are distinguished from one another by their slight variations in sexual reproductive structures and morphology. The below figure displays morphological plates, showing the three fungi species at both a macroscopic and microscopic level – notice their unique conidial heads and spore arrangements, coloured in blue.
Morphologies of Gibellula pseudopigmentosa, Gibellula pseudopigmentosa, Gibellula pseudosolita, and Gibellula sinensis. Photo credit: Chang et al.
To identify new species of spider-pathogenic fungi, the research group conducted field surveys in the forest leaf of China and Laos, where they collected specimens for detailed laboratory study. A combination of traditional microscopy and modern DNA sequencing rendered the discovery possible. The fungi’s sighting in Laos is particularly significant because it provides the first formal record of the Gibellula genus in the region.
This study – published in MycoKeys– therefore serves to fill a major distributional gap in Southeast Asia, as well as expand our understanding of the morphological diversity within this group of spider-pathogenic fungi.
Meanwhile, in Brazil, a study led by Joao Paulo Machado De Araújo of the University of Copenhagen and the Royal Botanic Gardens of Kew, published in IMA Fungus, described a new species of Purpureocillium fungus belonging to the Purpureocilliumatypicola group: Purpureocillium atlanticum. This fungus specifically targets trapdoor spiders inhabiting burrows on the forest floor, where it mummifies the host in white mycelia and subsequently emerges from its cephalothorax in the form of a purple fruiting body.
The discovery was notably featured in The Guardian, where it was placed alongside other unusual botanical and fungal discoveries compiled by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
Phylogeny of hypocrealean fungi (A), highlighting the Purpureocillium atypicola complex (B) and morphology of the new species, P. atlanticum (C–G). Photo credit: Araújo et al.
Purpureocillium atypicola was originally recorded in Japan by Yasuda (1894), and was thought to be a single species found all over the world for over a century. The discovery of the Purpureocillium atlanticum in Brazil is significant because it finally confirms that Purpureocillium atypicola is actually a global complex of many unique species.
To identify this new fungus, De Araújo’s research group used taxogenomics, a method which entailed bringing portable DNA sequencing gear directly into the Brazilian rainforest. By analysing the genetic code of the fungus and its environment immediately in the field, they were able to identify the specimen within justfour days as opposed to waiting months for traditional lab results.
Both of these studies highlight the impressive diversity of spider-pathogenic fungi across distinct global environments. They additionally reveal the different evolutionary strategies of their respective species – while Purpureocillium atlanticum has adapted to infect underground trapdoor spiders by producing purple stalks to escape burrows, the Gibellula species represent the most diverse genus of spider parasites, found primarily in forest debris.
As researchers continue to map these complex ecological networks, it becomes clear that preserving threatened biomes, including the Atlantic Forest and the jungles of Southeast Asia, is critical to expanding our knowledge in fungal taxonomy.
Araújo JPM, Przelomska NAS, Smith RJ, Drechsler-Santos ER, Alves-Silva G, Martins-Cunha K, Hosoya T, Luangsa-ard JJ, Perrigo A, Repullés M, Matos-Maraví P, Woods R, Pérez-Escobar OA, Antonelli A (2025) A new species of Purpureocillium (Ophiocordycipitaceae) fungus parasitizing trapdoor spiders in Brazil’s Atlantic Forest and its associated microbiome revealed through in situ “taxogenomics”. IMA Fungus 16: e168534. https://doi.org/10.3897/imafungus.16.168534
Chang C-xin, Chen H, Loinheuang C, Dai Y-dong, Wang Y (2026) Morphological and phylogenetic analyses reveal three new species of Gibellula (Cordycipitaceae, Hypocreales) from spiders. MycoKeys 127: 135-154. https://doi.org/10.3897/mycokeys.127.177871
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